Concerning the frequency of a verb's alternation, we decided intuitively whether\nan alternation occurs 'marginally' or 'regularly'. Some alternations marked as\noccuring 'marginally' surely have to be rediscussed.
\nConcerning the Coding Frames we did not pay attention to adjuncts.
\nOften there can be created alternations of alternations. We did not mark them but in most cases we made a comment.\nWe did not establish a causative alternation.
", "latitude": 51.344339, "longitude": 12.348633}, "name": "German (Standard)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [12.348633, 51.344339]}, "id": "stan1295"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 330, "basic_codingframe_pk": 175, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "'make/do'", "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243-make-1", "name": "\u0173\u0173", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 307, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 307, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 13, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 13, "source": null}}], "label": "\u0173\u0173", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGNjYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 13, "glottocode": "hoch1243", "family_pk": 10, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243", "name": "Hooc\u0105k (Wisconsin Hooc\u0105k)", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 43.5, "longitude": -88.5}, "name": "Hooc\u0105k (Wisconsin Hooc\u0105k)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [271.5, 43.5]}, "id": "hoch1243"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 424, "basic_codingframe_pk": 231, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "This verb appears in many phrasal constructions (like make a mistake, etc.) and in a brace of make-causative constructions. The third argument can be introduced by from or out of.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293-make-1", "name": "make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 395, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 395, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 8, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 8, "source": null}}], "label": "make", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 8, "glottocode": "stan1293", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293", "name": "English", "description": "#### General comment\n\nIn general the task presented by English is different in many ways from that\nfaced by most other contributors, mainly on account of the vast body of existing\nresearch on valency patterns on English but also on account of the unparalleled\nresources available for English, including very large corpora and the\nEnglish-language internet.\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nI have generally constructed what seem to me to be typical-sounding sentences.\nIn many cases I've checked on the internet or in Cobuld Wordbanks Online that\nthe examples are indeed \"ordinary\" in character, but I haven't restricted myself\nat this stage to using all and only corpus-documented examples.", "markup_description": "In general the task presented by English is different in many ways from that\nfaced by most other contributors, mainly on account of the vast body of existing\nresearch on valency patterns on English but also on account of the unparalleled\nresources available for English, including very large corpora and the\nEnglish-language internet.
\nI have generally constructed what seem to me to be typical-sounding sentences.\nIn many cases I've checked on the internet or in Cobuld Wordbanks Online that\nthe examples are indeed \"ordinary\" in character, but I haven't restricted myself\nat this stage to using all and only corpus-documented examples.
", "latitude": 53.0, "longitude": -1.0}, "name": "English"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-1.0, 53.0]}, "id": "stan1293"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 606, "basic_codingframe_pk": 281, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "kijja ~ kirja", "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245-make-1", "name": "kijja", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 565, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 565, "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 31, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 31, "source": null}}], "label": "kijja", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 31, "glottocode": "sril1245", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245", "name": "Sri Lanka Malay", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 6.92, "longitude": 79.86}, "name": "Sri Lanka Malay"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [79.86, 6.92]}, "id": "sril1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 794, "basic_codingframe_pk": 318, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316-make-1", "name": "bikin", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 729, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 729, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 16, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 16, "source": null}}], "label": "bikin", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 16, "glottocode": "indo1316", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316", "name": "Jakarta Indonesian", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -6.20924, "longitude": 106.833729}, "name": "Jakarta Indonesian"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [106.833729, -6.20924]}, "id": "indo1316"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 990, "basic_codingframe_pk": 370, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "/nka-u-jny\u0101/; CPL-CAUS-move; This verb is the causative of -jny\u00e1 'shake'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235-make-1", "name": "nka-jny\u0101", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 904, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 904, "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 36, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 36, "source": null}}], "label": "nka-jny\u0101", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNMiAzNiBMMzggMzYgTDIwIDUgTDIgMzYiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiM5OTAwOTk7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 36, "glottocode": "zenz1235", "family_pk": 23, "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235", "name": "Zenzontepec Chatino", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 16.5334303, "longitude": -97.4953304}, "name": "Zenzontepec Chatino"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [262.5046696, 16.5334303]}, "id": "zenz1235"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1096, "basic_codingframe_pk": 389, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "Other meanings expressed by passives, resultatives etc. in English are expressed by infinitive constructions, such as: Mngw r\u00e4ms m\u00e1i ym. - The house is still being built. Mngw r\u00e4msmne ym. - The house has been built. Yna mngw wgd r\u00e4msmne ym. - This house is well-built.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-make-1", "name": "r\u00e4ms", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 992, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 992, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 26, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 26, "source": null}}, {"pk": 1097, "basic_codingframe_pk": 389, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-make-2", "name": "waprs", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 992, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 992, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 26, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 26, "source": null}}], "label": "r\u00e4ms, waprs", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMEZGMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 26, "glottocode": "nenn1238", "family_pk": 17, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238", "name": "Nen", "description": "#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nCase (ergative/absolutive), around 12 case suffixes. ERG/ABS neutralisation in\nsingular case forms of pronouns only.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nVerb indexes up to two arguments, undergoer by prefix and actor by suffix. Only\naround 25 verbs are morphologically intransitive: all but 4 of them belonging to\na special 'positional' class, the rest being 'be', 'come' (lit. hither-be), 'go'\n(lit. 'thither-be') and 'walk'. Other syntactically monovalent verbs use\na morphologically middle construction with a person/number-invariant prefix plus\na person/number sensitive suffix. The 'undergoer' verb prefixes are used for\nboth direct and indirect objects, though these are flagged by different cases\n(absolutive and dative) on the corresponding free NPs.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nWord order is predominantly SOV (i.e. APV), though with some flexibility allowed\nby discourse factors. However, in the very productive 'experiencer object'\nconstruction used for most physical sensations like pain or disease, however,\nthe order is PAV, i.e. the experiencer of the pain is generally placed first\ndespite the fact that on other grounds it is the undergoer: it takes absolutive\ncase and is cross-reference by the undergoer prefix.", "markup_description": "Case (ergative/absolutive), around 12 case suffixes. ERG/ABS neutralisation in\nsingular case forms of pronouns only.
\nVerb indexes up to two arguments, undergoer by prefix and actor by suffix. Only\naround 25 verbs are morphologically intransitive: all but 4 of them belonging to\na special 'positional' class, the rest being 'be', 'come' (lit. hither-be), 'go'\n(lit. 'thither-be') and 'walk'. Other syntactically monovalent verbs use\na morphologically middle construction with a person/number-invariant prefix plus\na person/number sensitive suffix. The 'undergoer' verb prefixes are used for\nboth direct and indirect objects, though these are flagged by different cases\n(absolutive and dative) on the corresponding free NPs.
\nWord order is predominantly SOV (i.e. APV), though with some flexibility allowed\nby discourse factors. However, in the very productive 'experiencer object'\nconstruction used for most physical sensations like pain or disease, however,\nthe order is PAV, i.e. the experiencer of the pain is generally placed first\ndespite the fact that on other grounds it is the undergoer: it takes absolutive\ncase and is cross-reference by the undergoer prefix.
", "latitude": -8.581021, "longitude": 142.119141}, "name": "Nen"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [142.119141, -8.581021]}, "id": "nenn1238"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1197, "basic_codingframe_pk": 411, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "The verb means basically 'do' and 'make'; it also is used in all translational equivalents of 'build'; furthermore, it is used as a causative marker (cf. the causative alternation).", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241-make-1", "name": "kx\u02bcuu", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1078, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1078, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 27, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 27, "source": null}}], "label": "kx\u02bcuu", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMEZGRkY7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 27, "glottocode": "nuuu1241", "family_pk": 18, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241", "name": "N\u01c0\u01c0ng", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -28.434883, "longitude": 21.31897}, "name": "N\u01c0\u01c0ng"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [21.31897, -28.434883]}, "id": "nuuu1241"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1290, "basic_codingframe_pk": 430, "original_script": "\u0635\u0646\u0639", "simplex_or_complex": "Unknown", "comment": "A stem I verb", "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318-make-1", "name": "s\u0323ana\u02bfa", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1164, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1164, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 25, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 25, "source": null}}], "label": "s\u0323ana\u02bfa", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRkZGRkY7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 25, "glottocode": "stan1318", "family_pk": 16, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318", "name": "Modern Standard Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic)", "description": "#### General comment\n\n * Language family: Afro Asiatic > Semitic > Centralsemitic > Arabic\n * National language in 26 states\n * In all Arabic speaking communities there is a Diglossical situation with three varieties of Arabic:\n 1. Arabic Vernaculars - varieties of Arabic dialects, learned as a native language\n 2. Classical Arabic (CA) - the language of the Quran used in liturgical acts\n 3. Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) - used as lingua franca in interdialectical comunication, in media, education, street-signs, etc.; acquired as L2 through education\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\n * MSA is an accusative language and has a three-case system:MSA is a VSO language with no fixed word order.
\nAround 90 % of the data is elicited and consulted with two native speakers of\nhasaniya (dialect of Arabic in Mauretania) both fluently speaking MSA.
\nAdditional data is gained from naturalistic written texts of modern Arabic\nliteratur, source: http://arabicorpus.byu.edu/
", "latitude": 27.96, "longitude": 43.85}, "name": "Modern Standard Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [43.85, 27.96]}, "id": "stan1318"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1382, "basic_codingframe_pk": 441, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "'to do'; The making material can be expressed as an adnominal possessor modifying the made thing.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248-make-1", "name": "yowal", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1252, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1252, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 3, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 3, "source": null}}], "label": "yowal", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6Izk5MDA5OTtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 3, "glottocode": "bezh1248", "family_pk": 3, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248", "name": "Bezhta", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 42.12, "longitude": 46.03}, "name": "Bezhta"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [46.03, 42.12]}, "id": "bezh1248"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1472, "basic_codingframe_pk": 553, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282-make-1", "name": "fare", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1340, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1340, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 15, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 15, "source": null}}], "label": "fare", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 15, "glottocode": "ital1282", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282", "name": "Italian (Standard Italian)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nItalian is a nominative-accusative language, with some domains where the\nencoding of arguments follows an active and marginally an ergative patterning.\nThe syntactic function of arguments is signalled by agreement and word order for\nthe nuclear arguments of the clause, A and P. Recipients and other non-core and\nperipheral arguments (i.e., adjuncts) are expressed by means of prepositions.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nThere are no cases, apart from a residual accusative and dative form for clitic\npronouns, used, respectively, for core and non-core arguments (e.g., recipients,\nlocative adjuncts etc.). Most typically peripheral arguments, i.e., adjuncts,\nare coded through prepositional phrases.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nAgreement is always with the A/S argument in simple tenses. In compound tenses\nthere occurs split agreement when P is realized by a pronoun: the finite verb\nalways agrees with A, whilst the past participle agrees with the pronominal\nP (ergative orientation). S always agrees with the finite verb in simple tenses.\nIn compound tenses the past participle agrees with S if the verb is\nunaccusative, whilst it reverts to the unmarked masculine singular if the verb\nis unergative.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nSyntactically, Italian is an SVO language, characterized by pragmatic rigidity\nand relative syntactic freedom, with tension between the basic SV(O) order and\na pragmatic principle, whereby focal P arguments occur after the verb (Bentley\n2006: 363, 368-370, 2008 and references therein).\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nDictionaries, scientific literature, naturalistic written examples, constructed\nby native speaker linguists, the Online Corpus of Written Italian ItWac (Baroni\n& Kilgariff 2006).", "markup_description": "Italian is a nominative-accusative language, with some domains where the\nencoding of arguments follows an active and marginally an ergative patterning.\nThe syntactic function of arguments is signalled by agreement and word order for\nthe nuclear arguments of the clause, A and P. Recipients and other non-core and\nperipheral arguments (i.e., adjuncts) are expressed by means of prepositions.
\nThere are no cases, apart from a residual accusative and dative form for clitic\npronouns, used, respectively, for core and non-core arguments (e.g., recipients,\nlocative adjuncts etc.). Most typically peripheral arguments, i.e., adjuncts,\nare coded through prepositional phrases.
\nAgreement is always with the A/S argument in simple tenses. In compound tenses\nthere occurs split agreement when P is realized by a pronoun: the finite verb\nalways agrees with A, whilst the past participle agrees with the pronominal\nP (ergative orientation). S always agrees with the finite verb in simple tenses.\nIn compound tenses the past participle agrees with S if the verb is\nunaccusative, whilst it reverts to the unmarked masculine singular if the verb\nis unergative.
\nSyntactically, Italian is an SVO language, characterized by pragmatic rigidity\nand relative syntactic freedom, with tension between the basic SV(O) order and\na pragmatic principle, whereby focal P arguments occur after the verb (Bentley\n2006: 363, 368-370, 2008 and references therein).
\nDictionaries, scientific literature, naturalistic written examples, constructed\nby native speaker linguists, the Online Corpus of Written Italian ItWac (Baroni\n& Kilgariff 2006).
", "latitude": 43.0, "longitude": 12.0}, "name": "Italian (Standard Italian)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [12.0, 43.0]}, "id": "ital1282"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1577, "basic_codingframe_pk": 670, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "Nepali ban\u0101u- 'make' + -e [V.NTVZ] (verbal nativiser) + numd- 'do' (as auxiliary).", "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245-make-1", "name": "bane numd", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1428, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1428, "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 5, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 5, "source": null}}], "label": "bane numd", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 5, "glottocode": "chhi1245", "family_pk": 5, "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245", "name": "Chintang", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 26.947628, "longitude": 87.211189}, "name": "Chintang"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [87.211189, 26.947628]}, "id": "chhi1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1673, "basic_codingframe_pk": 682, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "Cf. dewman (1)", "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245-make-1", "name": "dewman", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1517, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1517, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 23, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 23, "source": null}}], "label": "dewman", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRkZGMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "South America", "pk": 23, "glottocode": "mapu1245", "family_pk": 15, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245", "name": "Mapudungun", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -38.0, "longitude": -72.0}, "name": "Mapudungun"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [288.0, -38.0]}, "id": "mapu1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1779, "basic_codingframe_pk": 689, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "xwi is a labile verb, it means 'build, make' in a transitive construction (with an agentive subject), and 'exist', 'become' in an intransitive construction (with a patientive subject).", "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244-make-1", "name": "xwi", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1603, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1603, "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 32, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 32, "source": null}}], "label": "xwi", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 32, "glottocode": "xara1244", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244", "name": "X\u00e2r\u00e2c\u00f9\u00f9", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -21.6666666667, "longitude": 166.0}, "name": "X\u00e2r\u00e2c\u00f9\u00f9"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [166.0, -21.6666666667]}, "id": "xara1244"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1873, "basic_codingframe_pk": 703, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "no data on 'He made a house out of wood.'", "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259-make-1", "name": "h\u0259y-t", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1690, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1690, "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 30, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 30, "source": null}}], "label": "h\u0259y-t", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRjY2MDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 30, "glottocode": "como1259", "family_pk": 20, "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259", "name": "Sliammon", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 49.906, "longitude": -124.6179}, "name": "Sliammon"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [235.38209999999998, 49.906]}, "id": "como1259"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1974, "basic_codingframe_pk": 709, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "'make something'", "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241-make-1", "name": "e\u0323he\u0323n", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1775, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1775, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 7, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 7, "source": null}}], "label": "e\u0323he\u0323n", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGRkZGRjtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 7, "glottocode": "emai1241", "family_pk": 6, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241", "name": "Emai", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 7.08333333333, "longitude": 5.91666666667}, "name": "Emai"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [5.91666666667, 7.08333333333]}, "id": "emai1241"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2179, "basic_codingframe_pk": 754, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "D\u00e1daa expresses both 'make' and 'repair', but is fully productive in the sense of 'repair' only. In the sense of 'make', Mandinka rather tends to use either more specific verbs ('carve', 'sew', etc.), or the verb k\u00e9 'transform (into)'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-make-1", "name": "d\u00e1daa", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1951, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1951, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 22, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 22, "source": null}}, {"pk": 2180, "basic_codingframe_pk": 765, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "K\u00e9( 2) is a semi-labile verb whose basic meaning is 'become' (intransitive) / 'transform into' (transitive). It also has a causative form expressing 'help to become'. In its intransitive use, it expresses 'be' in competition with the identificational copula mu.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-make-2", "name": "k\u00e9", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1951, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1951, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 22, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 22, "source": null}}], "label": "d\u00e1daa, k\u00e9", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNERDAwMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 22, "glottocode": "mand1436", "family_pk": 14, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436", "name": "Mandinka", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 13.4166666667, "longitude": -16.0}, "name": "Mandinka"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-16.0, 13.4166666667]}, "id": "mand1436"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2299, "basic_codingframe_pk": 775, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "Simple Verb.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255-make-1", "name": "ganilinymany", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2057, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2057, "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 17, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 17, "source": null}}], "label": "ganilinymany", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDAwREQ7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Australia", "pk": 17, "glottocode": "djam1255", "family_pk": 11, "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255", "name": "Jaminjung (Both Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru varieties)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nJaminjung belongs to the small Jaminjungan (or Western Mirndi) subgroup of the\ngeographically discontinuous Mirndi family, one of the non-Pama-Nyungan families\nof northern Australia. The name Jaminjung is used here for two named varieties,\nJaminjung and Ngaliwurru, which are mutually intelligible and exhibit mainly\nlexical differences. The traditional country of Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru\nspeakers is located north and south of the Victoria River around the present-day\ntownship of Timber Creek in the Northern Territory. Jaminjung is severely\nendangered in that it is no longer acquired by children; only a few dozen\nelderly speakers are alive today.\n\nA pervasive feature of Jaminjung lexicon and grammar, which proves to be highly\nrelevant for the discussion of verb classes and alternations, is a division of\nthe \u201cverbal\u201d lexicon into two distinct parts of speech. This is an areal\nphenomenon found in a number of unrelated languages in Northern Australia.\n\nInflecting verbs (IVs), i.e. those taking obligatory pronominal prefixes and\ntense and mood marking, form a closed class with only about 35 members (with\nsome variation depending on the dialect affiliation and also the age of\nindividual speakers).\n\nUninflecting verbs (UVs; also known as \"coverbs\" or \"preverbs\" in the\nliterature) can be distinguished from IVs by the fact that they cannot take\nverbal inflections. They are also distinguishable from nominals in that they do\nnot co-occur with determiners such as demonstratives. UVs form an open class\nwhich can be expanded by loan words.\n\nPredicates in Jaminjung thus can be simple (an IV on its own) or complex (a\ncombination of an IV and one or two UVs). In addition, translation equivalents\nof verbs can be collocations involving nominals, e.g. expressions with a body\npart for feelings/pain, or expressions like gugu gardbany 'rain falls' = 'to\nrain'.\n\nMost valency alternations in Jaminjung are only relevant for complex predicates.\nA valency change in this type of alternation is achieved by combining the same\nUV with different IVs resulting e.g. in inchoative vs. causative complex\npredicates. In this database, they are therefore marked as \"UV\" preceding the\nalternation name, and are considered coded alternations even though they are not\ncoded by a dedicated valency-changing morphological marker. Note also that the\nsubstitution of different IVs with the same UV can also result in other semantic\ndifferences, e.g. in lexical aspect, deictic direction of motion, instrument\nused for contact, or other more subtle differences. In this database only\nvalency-changing alternations are considered.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nJaminjung has a rich system of cases which formally are clitics occurring once\nor more than once in a phrase. Case marking of core arguments follows an\nergative-absolutive pattern, with optional ergativity. As a general rule, the\ncase frame used with a particular predicate, whether simple or complex, follows\nfrom the morphological transitivity of the inflecting verb (IV). That is,\na single absolutive argument occurs with intransitive IVs, and an\nergative-absolutive case frame (or double absolutive if ergative marking is\nomitted) is used with transitive IVs. Since the absolutive is unmarked, it is\nnot glossed in examples. The ergative has the form -ni ~ -di.\n\nErgative marking of A arguments is optional in Jaminjung; the presence vs.\nabsence of ergative marking depends on a variety of factors including the\nsemantics of the predicate, animacy and degree of agentivity of A, and lexical\nand grammatical aspect. Therefore, presence vs. absence of ergative marking was\nnot considered an alternation for the purposes of this database.\n\nRegular double absolutive marking used for both A and P of some bivalent atelic\npredicates (with intransitive IV), i.e. the ergative is not possible on As in\nthis case.\n\nDouble absolutive marking is also used for both NP objects of a semantically\ntrivalent predicate.\n\nDative case ( -gu ~ -wu) marks addressees or beneficiaries and also has\na purposive function; in addition a specialised purposive case (-ngurlung) is\nused by some speakers, and the possessive case -gina (usually appearing in\nadnominal function) can have a purposive use as well.\n\nSpatial cases are locative (-gi ~ -g ~ -ni), allative (-bina) and ablative\n(-ngunyi / -giyag). Specialised forms of these cases are found on inherently\nlocative expressions. An additional origin case (-nyunga) indicates spatial\norigin (as in 'the man from England') but also has a causal function.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nFrom the point of view of indexing morphology, inflecting verbs (IVs) fall into\ntwo non-overlapping classes. Morphologically transitive verbs in their\nnon-reflexive/reciprocal form occur with a set of pronominal prefixes which\nalways index the most agentive argument (A) and in addition the patient-like (P)\nargument. With ditransitive predicates, R rather than P is usually indexed\nexcept for a marginal alternation which is possible only in the case that P is\nanimate.\n\nThe order of prefixes is usually A followed by P, although in some cases\na portmanteau prefix is used. The 3rd person singular object (P) is not overtly\nexpressed except with a 3rd person singular subject.\n\nIn one variety, nonsingular first person P prefixes have been neutralised, i.e.\nonly the first person singular prefix is used, and an enclitic pronominal\n(identical to the dative form) is used to disambiguate for number and the\ninclusive/exclusive distinction.\n\nMorphologically intransitive verbs indicate their single argument (S) by\na pronominal prefix which in most cells of the paradigm (except 2nd person\nsingular) is identical to the A prefix. Thus, indexing more or less follows\na nominative-accusative pattern.\n\nA final indexing phenomenon is the cross-referencing of dative, locative and\nallative arguments or adjuncts by an enclitic oblique (dative) pronoun. This\n\u201cclitic doubling\u201d is restricted to animate referents.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nWord order is purely pragmatically conditioned and not employed to indicate\ngrammatical roles. Noun phrases can be freely omitted if understood from context\n(zero anaphora).\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nData in this database are from both elicited and naturalistic speech recorded\nduring multiple field trips undertaken by the author between 1993 and 2008.\nOccasional examples also come from field notes and texts recorded by Mark\nHarvey, Janet Bolt, and Michael Walsh, and Dorothea Hoffmann. Examples from\naudio- or video-recorded sessions are accompanied by the file name of the audio\nfile as archived (with annotations) in the Jaminjung DoBeS archive\n(www.mpi.nl/dobes) (rather than a page nr). Examples marked as \"field notes\" are\noverheard examples. Examples with no file name information come from transcripts\nwhich are not yet linked to archived audio files.\n\nComments on conventions:\n\nIn literal glosses of complex verbs in the \"comments\" field, the gloss of the\ninflecting verb (IV) is in capitals.\n\nSince there is no infinitive form of the inflecting verb in Jaminjung and roots\nare not produced in isolation by speakers, the 3rd singular subject (+ 3rd sg\nobject for tr.verbs) past perfective form of inflecting verbs is provided\nthroughout, as this is one of the most frequent forms.\n\nBorrowings (in verb meanings) and code switches (in examples) from Kriol, the\nEnglish-lexified Creole language spoken by most Jaminjung speakers, are marked\nby angular brackets (<...>).", "markup_description": "Jaminjung belongs to the small Jaminjungan (or Western Mirndi) subgroup of the\ngeographically discontinuous Mirndi family, one of the non-Pama-Nyungan families\nof northern Australia. The name Jaminjung is used here for two named varieties,\nJaminjung and Ngaliwurru, which are mutually intelligible and exhibit mainly\nlexical differences. The traditional country of Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru\nspeakers is located north and south of the Victoria River around the present-day\ntownship of Timber Creek in the Northern Territory. Jaminjung is severely\nendangered in that it is no longer acquired by children; only a few dozen\nelderly speakers are alive today.
\nA pervasive feature of Jaminjung lexicon and grammar, which proves to be highly\nrelevant for the discussion of verb classes and alternations, is a division of\nthe \u201cverbal\u201d lexicon into two distinct parts of speech. This is an areal\nphenomenon found in a number of unrelated languages in Northern Australia.
\nInflecting verbs (IVs), i.e. those taking obligatory pronominal prefixes and\ntense and mood marking, form a closed class with only about 35 members (with\nsome variation depending on the dialect affiliation and also the age of\nindividual speakers).
\nUninflecting verbs (UVs; also known as \"coverbs\" or \"preverbs\" in the\nliterature) can be distinguished from IVs by the fact that they cannot take\nverbal inflections. They are also distinguishable from nominals in that they do\nnot co-occur with determiners such as demonstratives. UVs form an open class\nwhich can be expanded by loan words.
\nPredicates in Jaminjung thus can be simple (an IV on its own) or complex (a\ncombination of an IV and one or two UVs). In addition, translation equivalents\nof verbs can be collocations involving nominals, e.g. expressions with a body\npart for feelings/pain, or expressions like gugu gardbany 'rain falls' = 'to\nrain'.
\nMost valency alternations in Jaminjung are only relevant for complex predicates.\nA valency change in this type of alternation is achieved by combining the same\nUV with different IVs resulting e.g. in inchoative vs. causative complex\npredicates. In this database, they are therefore marked as \"UV\" preceding the\nalternation name, and are considered coded alternations even though they are not\ncoded by a dedicated valency-changing morphological marker. Note also that the\nsubstitution of different IVs with the same UV can also result in other semantic\ndifferences, e.g. in lexical aspect, deictic direction of motion, instrument\nused for contact, or other more subtle differences. In this database only\nvalency-changing alternations are considered.
\nJaminjung has a rich system of cases which formally are clitics occurring once\nor more than once in a phrase. Case marking of core arguments follows an\nergative-absolutive pattern, with optional ergativity. As a general rule, the\ncase frame used with a particular predicate, whether simple or complex, follows\nfrom the morphological transitivity of the inflecting verb (IV). That is,\na single absolutive argument occurs with intransitive IVs, and an\nergative-absolutive case frame (or double absolutive if ergative marking is\nomitted) is used with transitive IVs. Since the absolutive is unmarked, it is\nnot glossed in examples. The ergative has the form -ni ~ -di.
\nErgative marking of A arguments is optional in Jaminjung; the presence vs.\nabsence of ergative marking depends on a variety of factors including the\nsemantics of the predicate, animacy and degree of agentivity of A, and lexical\nand grammatical aspect. Therefore, presence vs. absence of ergative marking was\nnot considered an alternation for the purposes of this database.
\nRegular double absolutive marking used for both A and P of some bivalent atelic\npredicates (with intransitive IV), i.e. the ergative is not possible on As in\nthis case.
\nDouble absolutive marking is also used for both NP objects of a semantically\ntrivalent predicate.
\nDative case ( -gu ~ -wu) marks addressees or beneficiaries and also has\na purposive function; in addition a specialised purposive case (-ngurlung) is\nused by some speakers, and the possessive case -gina (usually appearing in\nadnominal function) can have a purposive use as well.
\nSpatial cases are locative (-gi ~ -g ~ -ni), allative (-bina) and ablative\n(-ngunyi / -giyag). Specialised forms of these cases are found on inherently\nlocative expressions. An additional origin case (-nyunga) indicates spatial\norigin (as in 'the man from England') but also has a causal function.
\nFrom the point of view of indexing morphology, inflecting verbs (IVs) fall into\ntwo non-overlapping classes. Morphologically transitive verbs in their\nnon-reflexive/reciprocal form occur with a set of pronominal prefixes which\nalways index the most agentive argument (A) and in addition the patient-like (P)\nargument. With ditransitive predicates, R rather than P is usually indexed\nexcept for a marginal alternation which is possible only in the case that P is\nanimate.
\nThe order of prefixes is usually A followed by P, although in some cases\na portmanteau prefix is used. The 3rd person singular object (P) is not overtly\nexpressed except with a 3rd person singular subject.
\nIn one variety, nonsingular first person P prefixes have been neutralised, i.e.\nonly the first person singular prefix is used, and an enclitic pronominal\n(identical to the dative form) is used to disambiguate for number and the\ninclusive/exclusive distinction.
\nMorphologically intransitive verbs indicate their single argument (S) by\na pronominal prefix which in most cells of the paradigm (except 2nd person\nsingular) is identical to the A prefix. Thus, indexing more or less follows\na nominative-accusative pattern.
\nA final indexing phenomenon is the cross-referencing of dative, locative and\nallative arguments or adjuncts by an enclitic oblique (dative) pronoun. This\n\u201cclitic doubling\u201d is restricted to animate referents.
\nWord order is purely pragmatically conditioned and not employed to indicate\ngrammatical roles. Noun phrases can be freely omitted if understood from context\n(zero anaphora).
\nData in this database are from both elicited and naturalistic speech recorded\nduring multiple field trips undertaken by the author between 1993 and 2008.\nOccasional examples also come from field notes and texts recorded by Mark\nHarvey, Janet Bolt, and Michael Walsh, and Dorothea Hoffmann. Examples from\naudio- or video-recorded sessions are accompanied by the file name of the audio\nfile as archived (with annotations) in the Jaminjung DoBeS archive\n(www.mpi.nl/dobes) (rather than a page nr). Examples marked as \"field notes\" are\noverheard examples. Examples with no file name information come from transcripts\nwhich are not yet linked to archived audio files.
\nComments on conventions:
\nIn literal glosses of complex verbs in the \"comments\" field, the gloss of the\ninflecting verb (IV) is in capitals.
\nSince there is no infinitive form of the inflecting verb in Jaminjung and roots\nare not produced in isolation by speakers, the 3rd singular subject (+ 3rd sg\nobject for tr.verbs) past perfective form of inflecting verbs is provided\nthroughout, as this is one of the most frequent forms.
\nBorrowings (in verb meanings) and code switches (in examples) from Kriol, the\nEnglish-lexified Creole language spoken by most Jaminjung speakers, are marked\nby angular brackets (<...>).
", "latitude": -15.0833333333, "longitude": 130.5}, "name": "Jaminjung (Both Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru varieties)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [130.5, -15.0833333333]}, "id": "djam1255"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2582, "basic_codingframe_pk": 859, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yuca1254-make-1", "name": "beet", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2310, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2310, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yuca1254-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 35, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 35, "source": null}}], "label": "beet", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNMiAzNiBMMzggMzYgTDIwIDUgTDIgMzYiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDk5MDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 35, "glottocode": "yuca1254", "family_pk": 22, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yuca1254", "name": "Yucatec Maya (dialect of Quintana Roo, zona maya)", "description": "#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nSubject indexing is the same for all intransitive verbs. It varies as\nconditioned by verb status (a conjugation category).", "markup_description": "Subject indexing is the same for all intransitive verbs. It varies as\nconditioned by verb status (a conjugation category).
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\nSome verbs employ different stems for singular and plural. In the case of\nintransitive verbs, plurality refers to the number of S referents, while in the\ncase of transitive verbs plurality refers to the number of O or patientive\nA referents.
\nArguments do not inflect for case in Ainu: A and O are distinguished by their\nrelative position in clause structure and by verbal cross-referencing markers.
\nObliques are marked by postpositions: locative ta , allative un (for inanimatre\nGoal) and dative e-un <head-ALL> (for animate Goal), ablative wa , instrumental\nani, comitative tura/turano, traversal peka (\u2018over\u2019), mutative ne (\u2018as\u2019; <ne\nCOP). Most case postpositions not only clearly originate in verbs but are still\nin a very early stage of the grammaticalization as they can often occur without\nrespective nouns, as in (a).
\na. itanki huraye hine (itanki) ani i=ko-i-puni
\nbowl wash and bowl INST INDF.O=to.APPL-APASS-raise
\n\u2018She washed a bowl and with (that bowl) he served me food.\u2019 Ani (INST) ( < ani 'hold sth') may also be interpreted as lit. \u2018holding (that bowl)' - zero-anaphora. However, if ani were still a verb here we would need a coordinating conjunction after ani, so it really has an intermediate status between a verb and postposition.
The system of grammatical relations in Ainu shows mixed alignment. There is\na tripartite alignment (distinct marking for S, A, and O) in 1PL pronominal\nverbal marking, viz. the prefix ci= marks A, the suffix =as S, and un= O for the\nfirst person exclusive, and a= A, =an S, and i= O for indefinite person.\nIndefinite is not only used to refer to the indefinite speaker or addressee, but\nalso as the first person plural inclusive, second person singular/plural\nhonorific, and logophoric (person of the protagonist). The latter is common in\nfolktales because they have the structure of reported discourse with the whole\nstory being a quote; for convenience the logophoric is translated as \u2018I\u2019 but is\nglossed as IND. There are elements of a neutral system in the second and third\nperson pronominal verbal marking, viz. A, S, and O are marked by e= in 2SG and\nby eci= in 2PL, and the third person is always zero-marked; independent personal\npronouns are the same for A, S, and O in all persons. There is also one feature\nof a nominative/accusative system: A=S, and O are distinct in the 1SG pronominal\nverbal marking, viz. 1SG ku= marks A, S, and en= O
\nIn pronominal verbal marking of transitive verbs, A affixes are, in most cases,\nplaced before O markers. However, when it comes to the interaction of first and\nsecond person participants, person marking on verbs is not always analyzable as\nARGa-ARGo-VERB, and it is, indeed, subject to considerable dialectal variation.
\nThe A set of prefixes is also employed in the inalienable possessive\nconstruction, where they are attached to the head noun (possessee) to mark the\nperson and number of the possessor. The head noun is additionally marked with\nthe allomorphic possessive suffixes -V or -(V)hV which copy a root-final vowel\nonce or twice with the epenthetic /h/ being inserted, viz. -ha/-hu/-ho/-he/-hi\nfor vowel-final roots, as in ku=sapa-ha (1SG.A=head-POSS) \u2018my head\u2019, and\n-a(ha)/-u(hu)/-o(ho)/-e(he)/-i(hi) for consonant-final roots, as in ci=setur-u\nor ci=setur-uhu (1PL.(EXC).A=back-POSS) \u2018our backs\u2019 . Relational nouns as heads\ndiffer from common nouns in that they employ the O set of prefixes to mark the\nperson and number of the possessor, viz. en=sam (1SG.O=near) \u2018near me\u2019.\nPossessive suffixes are attached to relational nouns only if the possessor is\n3SG/PL (zero-marked), viz. \u00d8=sam-a (3.O=near-POSS) \u2018near him/her/it\u2019.
\nAlienable possession is encoded by the relative clause-based periphrastic\nconstruction with the verb kor \u2018have sth/sb\u2019 as the predicate and the possessor\nas the subject; the head noun (possessee) is left unmarked: ku=\u00d8=kor kamuy\n[1SG.\u0410=3.O=have god] \u2018my god\u2019 (lit. \u2018the god (that) I have\u2019).
\nSV/AOV constituent order.
\nIn double object construction, generally A-R-T-V, but there are also other ordering options, they are pragmatically motivated.
Attributives are prepositive.
\nSubordinate clauses always precede main clauses.
\nIs based on previous documentation of Ainu which had been undertaken by the\ncontributor or other researchers of Ainu. Data from existing Ainu dictionaries\nand published texts have been used extensively, as well as those that are in the\nprocess of preparation for a publication (see forthcoming). For most examples,\nthere exist respective audio materials.
\nThe contributor, Anna Bugaeva, has been working on Ainu since 1997 after her\ngraduation from Department of Japanese (St. Petersburg University) in 1996. She\nwas supervised by an Ainu specialist Tomomi Satoo in her PhD (obtained in 2004\nfrom Hokkaido University) and by an Ainu specialist Hiroshi Nakagawa in her two\npost-docs (Chiba University). Currently, she works as an assistant professor at\nWaseda Institute for Advanced Study, Waseda University.
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However, s\u0329e can occur alone but in an alternate construction, i.e., in the Fi-n\u00ed alternation.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "yoru1245-make-1", "name": "s\u0329e", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2930, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2930, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yoru1245-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 34, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 34, "source": null}}], "label": "s\u0329e", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGRkZGRjtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 34, "glottocode": "yoru1245", "family_pk": 6, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yoru1245", "name": "Yor\u00f9b\u00e1 (Standard Yoruba)", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 8.0, "longitude": 4.33333333333}, "name": "Yor\u00f9b\u00e1 (Standard Yoruba)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [4.33333333333, 8.0]}, "id": "yoru1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 3557, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1195, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "corpus frequencies: 10810/659/0 (basic/middle/causative); make, produce", "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2283-make-1", "name": "sa\u027ek\u02b0el", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 3096, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 3096, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2283-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 6, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 6, "source": null}}, {"pk": 3558, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1195, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "corpus frequencies: 84067/38916/0 (basic/middle/causative); create", "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2283-make-2", "name": "ste\u0281cel", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 3096, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 3096, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2283-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 6, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 6, "source": null}}, {"pk": 3559, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1195, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "corpus frequencies: 11503/1817/0 (basic/middle/causative); build a house, a boat etc", "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2283-make-3", "name": "\u0161inel", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 3096, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 3096, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2283-make", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 6, "parameter_pk": 102, "contribution_pk": 6, "source": null}}], "label": "sa\u027ek\u02b0el, ste\u0281cel, \u0161inel", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGNjYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": null, "pk": 6, "glottocode": "east2283", "family_pk": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2283", "name": "Eastern Armenian (standard Eastern Armenian)", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 40.0, "longitude": 45.0}, "name": "Eastern Armenian (standard Eastern Armenian)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [45.0, 40.0]}, "id": "east2283"}]}