any noun phrase (argument or adjunct) is always optional (except for subjects\nwith some forms of verbal predicates). It was not possible to apply a test using\nthe sentence frame suggested in the manual to distinguish between arguments and\nadjuncts. The Bora coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of\nthe pre-defined role frame with the corresponding Bora case marking.
\nThe database includes as coded alternations causative, reflexive and reciprocal\nderivation, which are all productive. There is a separate derivational system,\nwhich is relatively unproductive, which combines transitivity marking and verbal\nnumber marking (see examples under SIT). These alternations are not taken into\naccount in this database.
\nthe major resource for argument/adjunct identification is case marking which\napplies regularly to all noun phrases except that accusative case is marked only\non animates (-ke), unmarked for inanimates
\nsubjects may be cross-referenced by suffixes on the verb
\nword order is not a resource for argument identification, as it is mostly free\nexcept for some restricions on subjects: first and second person subject\npronouns procliticize to the verb, some forms of predicates require overt\nsubject noun phrases that precede the verb. If in such a construction a
\nData marked as \"elicited from native speaker\" was elicited by Frank Seifart\nduring field work in Peru in April 2010 and by telephone in March 2011.\nApplicability of alternations was also elicited on these two occasions.
", "latitude": -2.16666666667, "longitude": -72.3333333333}, "name": "Bora"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [287.6666666667, -2.16666666667]}, "id": "bora1263"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1073, "basic_codingframe_pk": 395, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Unknown", "comment": "Verb means 'to hunt'; it usually combines with the noun ele 'hunting'. 'To be a hunter' is derived from this as an agentive nominalization: \u00e4rser \u00e4r [hunt-NLZR-AG.NL person]", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-hunt-for-1", "name": "\u00e4rs", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 971, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 971, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-hunt-for", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 26, "parameter_pk": 86, "contribution_pk": 26, "source": null}}], "label": "\u00e4rs", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMEZGMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 26, "glottocode": "nenn1238", "family_pk": 17, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238", "name": "Nen", "description": "#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nCase (ergative/absolutive), around 12 case suffixes. ERG/ABS neutralisation in\nsingular case forms of pronouns only.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nVerb indexes up to two arguments, undergoer by prefix and actor by suffix. Only\naround 25 verbs are morphologically intransitive: all but 4 of them belonging to\na special 'positional' class, the rest being 'be', 'come' (lit. hither-be), 'go'\n(lit. 'thither-be') and 'walk'. Other syntactically monovalent verbs use\na morphologically middle construction with a person/number-invariant prefix plus\na person/number sensitive suffix. The 'undergoer' verb prefixes are used for\nboth direct and indirect objects, though these are flagged by different cases\n(absolutive and dative) on the corresponding free NPs.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nWord order is predominantly SOV (i.e. APV), though with some flexibility allowed\nby discourse factors. However, in the very productive 'experiencer object'\nconstruction used for most physical sensations like pain or disease, however,\nthe order is PAV, i.e. the experiencer of the pain is generally placed first\ndespite the fact that on other grounds it is the undergoer: it takes absolutive\ncase and is cross-reference by the undergoer prefix.", "markup_description": "Case (ergative/absolutive), around 12 case suffixes. ERG/ABS neutralisation in\nsingular case forms of pronouns only.
\nVerb indexes up to two arguments, undergoer by prefix and actor by suffix. Only\naround 25 verbs are morphologically intransitive: all but 4 of them belonging to\na special 'positional' class, the rest being 'be', 'come' (lit. hither-be), 'go'\n(lit. 'thither-be') and 'walk'. Other syntactically monovalent verbs use\na morphologically middle construction with a person/number-invariant prefix plus\na person/number sensitive suffix. The 'undergoer' verb prefixes are used for\nboth direct and indirect objects, though these are flagged by different cases\n(absolutive and dative) on the corresponding free NPs.
\nWord order is predominantly SOV (i.e. APV), though with some flexibility allowed\nby discourse factors. However, in the very productive 'experiencer object'\nconstruction used for most physical sensations like pain or disease, however,\nthe order is PAV, i.e. the experiencer of the pain is generally placed first\ndespite the fact that on other grounds it is the undergoer: it takes absolutive\ncase and is cross-reference by the undergoer prefix.
", "latitude": -8.581021, "longitude": 142.119141}, "name": "Nen"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [142.119141, -8.581021]}, "id": "nenn1238"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2052, "basic_codingframe_pk": 745, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259-hunt-for-1", "name": "bejukte-", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1846, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1846, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259-hunt-for", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 10, "parameter_pk": 86, "contribution_pk": 10, "source": null}}], "label": "bejukte-", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkZGRjtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 10, "glottocode": "even1259", "family_pk": 8, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259", "name": "Evenki", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 56.0, "longitude": 125.0}, "name": "Evenki"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [125.0, 56.0]}, "id": "even1259"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2152, "basic_codingframe_pk": 754, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "Deema is used both as a transitive verb (\u2018hunt\u2019) and as a noun (\u2018hunting\u2019, def. deem-\u00f4o), hence its ability to be used without the antipassive marker -ri in the construction expressing de-specification of the object.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-hunt-for-1", "name": "deema", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1931, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1931, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-hunt-for", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 22, "parameter_pk": 86, "contribution_pk": 22, "source": null}}], "label": "deema", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNERDAwMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 22, "glottocode": "mand1436", "family_pk": 14, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436", "name": "Mandinka", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 13.4166666667, "longitude": -16.0}, "name": "Mandinka"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-16.0, 13.4166666667]}, "id": "mand1436"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2274, "basic_codingframe_pk": 777, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "Complex verb. Lit. 'hunt + GO'. The verb 'go' can also have a habitual meaning so the expression can translate 'be a hunter', i.e. 'go hunting habitually'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255-hunt-for-1", "name": "lalabang gajgany", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2036, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2036, "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255-hunt-for", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 17, "parameter_pk": 86, "contribution_pk": 17, "source": null}}], "label": "lalabang gajgany", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDAwREQ7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Australia", "pk": 17, "glottocode": "djam1255", "family_pk": 11, "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255", "name": "Jaminjung (Both Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru varieties)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nJaminjung belongs to the small Jaminjungan (or Western Mirndi) subgroup of the\ngeographically discontinuous Mirndi family, one of the non-Pama-Nyungan families\nof northern Australia. The name Jaminjung is used here for two named varieties,\nJaminjung and Ngaliwurru, which are mutually intelligible and exhibit mainly\nlexical differences. The traditional country of Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru\nspeakers is located north and south of the Victoria River around the present-day\ntownship of Timber Creek in the Northern Territory. Jaminjung is severely\nendangered in that it is no longer acquired by children; only a few dozen\nelderly speakers are alive today.\n\nA pervasive feature of Jaminjung lexicon and grammar, which proves to be highly\nrelevant for the discussion of verb classes and alternations, is a division of\nthe \u201cverbal\u201d lexicon into two distinct parts of speech. This is an areal\nphenomenon found in a number of unrelated languages in Northern Australia.\n\nInflecting verbs (IVs), i.e. those taking obligatory pronominal prefixes and\ntense and mood marking, form a closed class with only about 35 members (with\nsome variation depending on the dialect affiliation and also the age of\nindividual speakers).\n\nUninflecting verbs (UVs; also known as \"coverbs\" or \"preverbs\" in the\nliterature) can be distinguished from IVs by the fact that they cannot take\nverbal inflections. They are also distinguishable from nominals in that they do\nnot co-occur with determiners such as demonstratives. UVs form an open class\nwhich can be expanded by loan words.\n\nPredicates in Jaminjung thus can be simple (an IV on its own) or complex (a\ncombination of an IV and one or two UVs). In addition, translation equivalents\nof verbs can be collocations involving nominals, e.g. expressions with a body\npart for feelings/pain, or expressions like gugu gardbany 'rain falls' = 'to\nrain'.\n\nMost valency alternations in Jaminjung are only relevant for complex predicates.\nA valency change in this type of alternation is achieved by combining the same\nUV with different IVs resulting e.g. in inchoative vs. causative complex\npredicates. In this database, they are therefore marked as \"UV\" preceding the\nalternation name, and are considered coded alternations even though they are not\ncoded by a dedicated valency-changing morphological marker. Note also that the\nsubstitution of different IVs with the same UV can also result in other semantic\ndifferences, e.g. in lexical aspect, deictic direction of motion, instrument\nused for contact, or other more subtle differences. In this database only\nvalency-changing alternations are considered.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nJaminjung has a rich system of cases which formally are clitics occurring once\nor more than once in a phrase. Case marking of core arguments follows an\nergative-absolutive pattern, with optional ergativity. As a general rule, the\ncase frame used with a particular predicate, whether simple or complex, follows\nfrom the morphological transitivity of the inflecting verb (IV). That is,\na single absolutive argument occurs with intransitive IVs, and an\nergative-absolutive case frame (or double absolutive if ergative marking is\nomitted) is used with transitive IVs. Since the absolutive is unmarked, it is\nnot glossed in examples. The ergative has the form -ni ~ -di.\n\nErgative marking of A arguments is optional in Jaminjung; the presence vs.\nabsence of ergative marking depends on a variety of factors including the\nsemantics of the predicate, animacy and degree of agentivity of A, and lexical\nand grammatical aspect. Therefore, presence vs. absence of ergative marking was\nnot considered an alternation for the purposes of this database.\n\nRegular double absolutive marking used for both A and P of some bivalent atelic\npredicates (with intransitive IV), i.e. the ergative is not possible on As in\nthis case.\n\nDouble absolutive marking is also used for both NP objects of a semantically\ntrivalent predicate.\n\nDative case ( -gu ~ -wu) marks addressees or beneficiaries and also has\na purposive function; in addition a specialised purposive case (-ngurlung) is\nused by some speakers, and the possessive case -gina (usually appearing in\nadnominal function) can have a purposive use as well.\n\nSpatial cases are locative (-gi ~ -g ~ -ni), allative (-bina) and ablative\n(-ngunyi / -giyag). Specialised forms of these cases are found on inherently\nlocative expressions. An additional origin case (-nyunga) indicates spatial\norigin (as in 'the man from England') but also has a causal function.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nFrom the point of view of indexing morphology, inflecting verbs (IVs) fall into\ntwo non-overlapping classes. Morphologically transitive verbs in their\nnon-reflexive/reciprocal form occur with a set of pronominal prefixes which\nalways index the most agentive argument (A) and in addition the patient-like (P)\nargument. With ditransitive predicates, R rather than P is usually indexed\nexcept for a marginal alternation which is possible only in the case that P is\nanimate.\n\nThe order of prefixes is usually A followed by P, although in some cases\na portmanteau prefix is used. The 3rd person singular object (P) is not overtly\nexpressed except with a 3rd person singular subject.\n\nIn one variety, nonsingular first person P prefixes have been neutralised, i.e.\nonly the first person singular prefix is used, and an enclitic pronominal\n(identical to the dative form) is used to disambiguate for number and the\ninclusive/exclusive distinction.\n\nMorphologically intransitive verbs indicate their single argument (S) by\na pronominal prefix which in most cells of the paradigm (except 2nd person\nsingular) is identical to the A prefix. Thus, indexing more or less follows\na nominative-accusative pattern.\n\nA final indexing phenomenon is the cross-referencing of dative, locative and\nallative arguments or adjuncts by an enclitic oblique (dative) pronoun. This\n\u201cclitic doubling\u201d is restricted to animate referents.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nWord order is purely pragmatically conditioned and not employed to indicate\ngrammatical roles. Noun phrases can be freely omitted if understood from context\n(zero anaphora).\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nData in this database are from both elicited and naturalistic speech recorded\nduring multiple field trips undertaken by the author between 1993 and 2008.\nOccasional examples also come from field notes and texts recorded by Mark\nHarvey, Janet Bolt, and Michael Walsh, and Dorothea Hoffmann. Examples from\naudio- or video-recorded sessions are accompanied by the file name of the audio\nfile as archived (with annotations) in the Jaminjung DoBeS archive\n(www.mpi.nl/dobes) (rather than a page nr). Examples marked as \"field notes\" are\noverheard examples. Examples with no file name information come from transcripts\nwhich are not yet linked to archived audio files.\n\nComments on conventions:\n\nIn literal glosses of complex verbs in the \"comments\" field, the gloss of the\ninflecting verb (IV) is in capitals.\n\nSince there is no infinitive form of the inflecting verb in Jaminjung and roots\nare not produced in isolation by speakers, the 3rd singular subject (+ 3rd sg\nobject for tr.verbs) past perfective form of inflecting verbs is provided\nthroughout, as this is one of the most frequent forms.\n\nBorrowings (in verb meanings) and code switches (in examples) from Kriol, the\nEnglish-lexified Creole language spoken by most Jaminjung speakers, are marked\nby angular brackets (<...>).", "markup_description": "Jaminjung belongs to the small Jaminjungan (or Western Mirndi) subgroup of the\ngeographically discontinuous Mirndi family, one of the non-Pama-Nyungan families\nof northern Australia. The name Jaminjung is used here for two named varieties,\nJaminjung and Ngaliwurru, which are mutually intelligible and exhibit mainly\nlexical differences. The traditional country of Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru\nspeakers is located north and south of the Victoria River around the present-day\ntownship of Timber Creek in the Northern Territory. Jaminjung is severely\nendangered in that it is no longer acquired by children; only a few dozen\nelderly speakers are alive today.
\nA pervasive feature of Jaminjung lexicon and grammar, which proves to be highly\nrelevant for the discussion of verb classes and alternations, is a division of\nthe \u201cverbal\u201d lexicon into two distinct parts of speech. This is an areal\nphenomenon found in a number of unrelated languages in Northern Australia.
\nInflecting verbs (IVs), i.e. those taking obligatory pronominal prefixes and\ntense and mood marking, form a closed class with only about 35 members (with\nsome variation depending on the dialect affiliation and also the age of\nindividual speakers).
\nUninflecting verbs (UVs; also known as \"coverbs\" or \"preverbs\" in the\nliterature) can be distinguished from IVs by the fact that they cannot take\nverbal inflections. They are also distinguishable from nominals in that they do\nnot co-occur with determiners such as demonstratives. UVs form an open class\nwhich can be expanded by loan words.
\nPredicates in Jaminjung thus can be simple (an IV on its own) or complex (a\ncombination of an IV and one or two UVs). In addition, translation equivalents\nof verbs can be collocations involving nominals, e.g. expressions with a body\npart for feelings/pain, or expressions like gugu gardbany 'rain falls' = 'to\nrain'.
\nMost valency alternations in Jaminjung are only relevant for complex predicates.\nA valency change in this type of alternation is achieved by combining the same\nUV with different IVs resulting e.g. in inchoative vs. causative complex\npredicates. In this database, they are therefore marked as \"UV\" preceding the\nalternation name, and are considered coded alternations even though they are not\ncoded by a dedicated valency-changing morphological marker. Note also that the\nsubstitution of different IVs with the same UV can also result in other semantic\ndifferences, e.g. in lexical aspect, deictic direction of motion, instrument\nused for contact, or other more subtle differences. In this database only\nvalency-changing alternations are considered.
\nJaminjung has a rich system of cases which formally are clitics occurring once\nor more than once in a phrase. Case marking of core arguments follows an\nergative-absolutive pattern, with optional ergativity. As a general rule, the\ncase frame used with a particular predicate, whether simple or complex, follows\nfrom the morphological transitivity of the inflecting verb (IV). That is,\na single absolutive argument occurs with intransitive IVs, and an\nergative-absolutive case frame (or double absolutive if ergative marking is\nomitted) is used with transitive IVs. Since the absolutive is unmarked, it is\nnot glossed in examples. The ergative has the form -ni ~ -di.
\nErgative marking of A arguments is optional in Jaminjung; the presence vs.\nabsence of ergative marking depends on a variety of factors including the\nsemantics of the predicate, animacy and degree of agentivity of A, and lexical\nand grammatical aspect. Therefore, presence vs. absence of ergative marking was\nnot considered an alternation for the purposes of this database.
\nRegular double absolutive marking used for both A and P of some bivalent atelic\npredicates (with intransitive IV), i.e. the ergative is not possible on As in\nthis case.
\nDouble absolutive marking is also used for both NP objects of a semantically\ntrivalent predicate.
\nDative case ( -gu ~ -wu) marks addressees or beneficiaries and also has\na purposive function; in addition a specialised purposive case (-ngurlung) is\nused by some speakers, and the possessive case -gina (usually appearing in\nadnominal function) can have a purposive use as well.
\nSpatial cases are locative (-gi ~ -g ~ -ni), allative (-bina) and ablative\n(-ngunyi / -giyag). Specialised forms of these cases are found on inherently\nlocative expressions. An additional origin case (-nyunga) indicates spatial\norigin (as in 'the man from England') but also has a causal function.
\nFrom the point of view of indexing morphology, inflecting verbs (IVs) fall into\ntwo non-overlapping classes. Morphologically transitive verbs in their\nnon-reflexive/reciprocal form occur with a set of pronominal prefixes which\nalways index the most agentive argument (A) and in addition the patient-like (P)\nargument. With ditransitive predicates, R rather than P is usually indexed\nexcept for a marginal alternation which is possible only in the case that P is\nanimate.
\nThe order of prefixes is usually A followed by P, although in some cases\na portmanteau prefix is used. The 3rd person singular object (P) is not overtly\nexpressed except with a 3rd person singular subject.
\nIn one variety, nonsingular first person P prefixes have been neutralised, i.e.\nonly the first person singular prefix is used, and an enclitic pronominal\n(identical to the dative form) is used to disambiguate for number and the\ninclusive/exclusive distinction.
\nMorphologically intransitive verbs indicate their single argument (S) by\na pronominal prefix which in most cells of the paradigm (except 2nd person\nsingular) is identical to the A prefix. Thus, indexing more or less follows\na nominative-accusative pattern.
\nA final indexing phenomenon is the cross-referencing of dative, locative and\nallative arguments or adjuncts by an enclitic oblique (dative) pronoun. This\n\u201cclitic doubling\u201d is restricted to animate referents.
\nWord order is purely pragmatically conditioned and not employed to indicate\ngrammatical roles. Noun phrases can be freely omitted if understood from context\n(zero anaphora).
\nData in this database are from both elicited and naturalistic speech recorded\nduring multiple field trips undertaken by the author between 1993 and 2008.\nOccasional examples also come from field notes and texts recorded by Mark\nHarvey, Janet Bolt, and Michael Walsh, and Dorothea Hoffmann. Examples from\naudio- or video-recorded sessions are accompanied by the file name of the audio\nfile as archived (with annotations) in the Jaminjung DoBeS archive\n(www.mpi.nl/dobes) (rather than a page nr). Examples marked as \"field notes\" are\noverheard examples. Examples with no file name information come from transcripts\nwhich are not yet linked to archived audio files.
\nComments on conventions:
\nIn literal glosses of complex verbs in the \"comments\" field, the gloss of the\ninflecting verb (IV) is in capitals.
\nSince there is no infinitive form of the inflecting verb in Jaminjung and roots\nare not produced in isolation by speakers, the 3rd singular subject (+ 3rd sg\nobject for tr.verbs) past perfective form of inflecting verbs is provided\nthroughout, as this is one of the most frequent forms.
\nBorrowings (in verb meanings) and code switches (in examples) from Kriol, the\nEnglish-lexified Creole language spoken by most Jaminjung speakers, are marked\nby angular brackets (<...>).
", "latitude": -15.0833333333, "longitude": 130.5}, "name": "Jaminjung (Both Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru varieties)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [130.5, -15.0833333333]}, "id": "djam1255"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 3034, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1083, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "tor-u means 'hunt'", "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526-hunt-for-1", "name": "no direct counterpart", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2675, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2675, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526-hunt-for", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 24, "parameter_pk": 86, "contribution_pk": 24, "source": null}}], "label": "no direct counterpart", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0NDQ0NDQztzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 24, "glottocode": "east2526", "family_pk": 9, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526", "name": "Mitsukaido Japanese", "description": "#### General comment\n\nBrief description of the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese\n\nThe Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese is spoken in the area around the former\nMitsukaido city (now incorporated into Joso city). This area is 50km north to\nTokyo, the capital of Japan. In spite of its close location to the economic and\ncultural center of Japan, the dialect spoken in this area displays phonological\nand morphosyntactic characteristics different from Standard Japanese.\n\nThis dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese dialect.\nAs mentioned below, this dialect shows Tohoku-like characteristics and\nKanto-like characteristics simultaneously in both phonology and morphosyntax.\nThis Janus-faced characteristic is a reflection of the geographical situation,\ni.e., the southern edge of Tohoku dialects.\n\nThe population of Joso city is 64,880 (August 16th, 2011). Due to its low inflow\nof population, most of the population can be regarded as a speaker of the\nMitsukaido dialect. The old generation preserves the classic type of grammatical\ntraits, while the speech of the younger generation undergoes influence from\nStandard Japanese. Sasaki (2011) illustrates that the loss of dialectal features\nin younger generation is overwhelming but not complete.\n\nThis dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting the\ngrammatical traits of this dialect are found in the modern Japanese literature.\nThe most well-known case is the conversational part of the novel Tsuchi 'The\nEarth' written by Takashi Nagatsuka in 1910.\n\nThe data used in this article is obtained from speakers aged over 80 and these\ndata reflect traditional features.\n\nThe phonemic inventory of this dialect is the same as that of Standard Japanese.\nThis dialect has five vowel phonemes /i, e, a, o, u/ and 11 consonant phonemes\n/p, t, k, b, d, g, n, m, r, w, j/. The dialect lacks lexical accent.\n\nDespite of its phonemic affinity with Standard Japanese, the surface phonetic\nrealization of cognate words is different from that of Standard Japanese because\nof the phonological processes not found in Standard Japanese: 'breath' is [iki]\nin SJ and [egi] in MD; 'square floor cushion' is [dzabutoN] in SJ and [dzaptoN]\nin MD. Most of the phonological processes responsible for the surface difference\nare those also found in Tohoku dialects, for example, intervocalic voicing of\nstops, regressive devoicing of /z/ and /b/, lowering of /i/ without onset, and\nso on. The phonological processes interact in a complex manner. Some\ninteractions exhibit multiple opaque interactions. For the details of the\ninteraction of phonological processes, see Sasaki (2008a). In order to avoid\nconfusion, I adopt systematic allophones, i.e., the output of the phonological\nprocesses, as notation in this database ([ng] stands for velar nasal).\n\nConcerning the morphology relating to valency alternation, both affinity and\ndifference are found between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese. The\nvoice system of the Mitsukaido dialect is almost the same as that of Standard\nJapanese, i.e., both the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese have\nproductive passive, causative and potential formation, but lack productive\nanticausativization widely attested in the Tohoku dialects, though the\nphonological shape of the morphemes is not completely the same: the passive and\nthe potential suffixes are identical to those of Standard Japanese, namely\npassive /rare/ and potential /e/ and /rare/, while the causative suffix is\n/sase/ in Standard Japanese but /rase/ in the Mitsukaido dialect.\n\nThe difference between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese is most\nprominent with respect to the case system. The case alignment of subject and\ndirect object in the Mitsukaido dialect is accusative type, as in Standard\nJapanese. However, the morphological shapes of nominative and accusative are\ndifferent. Nominative is expressed by zero-marking (in Standard Japanese, the\ncase particle -ga is used). Accusative case form is different depending on the\nanimacy of the host nominal: inanimate direct objects are zero-marked while\nanimate direct objects are case marked with the particle -godo. This type of\nunmarked nominative and marked accusative system is widely attested in Tohoku\ndialects (some of them employ -godo as an accusative marker). Due to having two\ntypes of accusative case marking, the Mitsukaido dialect has an uncoded valency\nalternation which is not found in Standard Japanese, namely double accusative\npossessor ascension and (unproductive) double accusative type dative\nalternation. For the details of double accusative constructions, see Sasaki\n(2002).\n\nAnother feature distinguishing the Mitsukaido dialect case system from that of\nStandard Japanese is the degree of elaboratedness of the oblique case particles.\nThe Mitsukaido dialect is more elaborated than Standard Japanese. The semantic\nsphere of the Standard Japanese dative/locative -ni is divided among four case\nparticles in the Mitsukaido dialect, i.e., locative -ni, dative -nge/-sa (-nge\nis used for animate goal and -sa is used for inanimate goal), and experiencer\ncase -ngani. The main usage of the experiencer case particle -ngani is a marker\nfor an experiencer oblique subject. The oblique case specific to experiencer is\nconsidered to be typologically rare. See Sasaki (2004) and Sasaki (2008b) for\ndetails.\n\nThe elaboratedness of the adnominal case particles is also characteristic to\nthis dialect. The Mitsukaido dialect has three adnominal case particles:\npossessive -nga, genitive -no, and adnominal locative -na. For details on the\nusage of these case particles, see Sasaki (1997) and Sasaki & Caluianu (1997).\n\n * Sasaki, Kan (1997) Possessive, Genitive and Adnominal Locative in the Mitsukaido Dialect. In: Tooru Hayashi & Peri Bhaskararao (eds.), Studies in Possessive Expressions. 117-141. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.\n * Sasaki, Kan and Daniela Caluianu (1997) Mitsukaidoo hoogen no rentaishuushoku kaku [Adnominal case particles in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese]. Gengo Kenkyu 111. 59-83.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2002) The double accusative possessor ascension construction in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese. In: Tasaku Tsunoda (ed.), Basic Materials in Minority Languages 2002. (ELPR Publications Series B003) 91-114.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2004) Mitsukaidoo Hoogen ni okeru Kaku to Bunpookankei [Case and Grammatical Relations in the Mitsukaido Dialect of Japanese]. Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2008a) Hardening alternation in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese. Gengo Kenkyu 134. 85-117.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2008b) What can the Mitsukaido dialect case system tell about syntactic theory? Journal of General Linguistics 11. 53-84\n * Sasaki, Kan (2011) Mitsukaidoo hoogen: hyoojungo ni chikai noni tooi hoogen [The Mitsukaido dialect: a dialect that is both close to and far from Standard Japanese]. In: Megumi Kurebito (ed.), Nihon no Kikigengo [Endangered Languages in Japan]. 101-138. Sapporo: Hokkaido University Press.", "markup_description": "Brief description of the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese
\nThe Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese is spoken in the area around the former\nMitsukaido city (now incorporated into Joso city). This area is 50km north to\nTokyo, the capital of Japan. In spite of its close location to the economic and\ncultural center of Japan, the dialect spoken in this area displays phonological\nand morphosyntactic characteristics different from Standard Japanese.
\nThis dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese dialect.\nAs mentioned below, this dialect shows Tohoku-like characteristics and\nKanto-like characteristics simultaneously in both phonology and morphosyntax.\nThis Janus-faced characteristic is a reflection of the geographical situation,\ni.e., the southern edge of Tohoku dialects.
\nThe population of Joso city is 64,880 (August 16th, 2011). Due to its low inflow\nof population, most of the population can be regarded as a speaker of the\nMitsukaido dialect. The old generation preserves the classic type of grammatical\ntraits, while the speech of the younger generation undergoes influence from\nStandard Japanese. Sasaki (2011) illustrates that the loss of dialectal features\nin younger generation is overwhelming but not complete.
\nThis dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting the\ngrammatical traits of this dialect are found in the modern Japanese literature.\nThe most well-known case is the conversational part of the novel Tsuchi 'The\nEarth' written by Takashi Nagatsuka in 1910.
\nThe data used in this article is obtained from speakers aged over 80 and these\ndata reflect traditional features.
\nThe phonemic inventory of this dialect is the same as that of Standard Japanese.\nThis dialect has five vowel phonemes /i, e, a, o, u/ and 11 consonant phonemes\n/p, t, k, b, d, g, n, m, r, w, j/. The dialect lacks lexical accent.
\nDespite of its phonemic affinity with Standard Japanese, the surface phonetic\nrealization of cognate words is different from that of Standard Japanese because\nof the phonological processes not found in Standard Japanese: 'breath' is [iki]\nin SJ and [egi] in MD; 'square floor cushion' is [dzabutoN] in SJ and [dzaptoN]\nin MD. Most of the phonological processes responsible for the surface difference\nare those also found in Tohoku dialects, for example, intervocalic voicing of\nstops, regressive devoicing of /z/ and /b/, lowering of /i/ without onset, and\nso on. The phonological processes interact in a complex manner. Some\ninteractions exhibit multiple opaque interactions. For the details of the\ninteraction of phonological processes, see Sasaki (2008a). In order to avoid\nconfusion, I adopt systematic allophones, i.e., the output of the phonological\nprocesses, as notation in this database ([ng] stands for velar nasal).
\nConcerning the morphology relating to valency alternation, both affinity and\ndifference are found between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese. The\nvoice system of the Mitsukaido dialect is almost the same as that of Standard\nJapanese, i.e., both the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese have\nproductive passive, causative and potential formation, but lack productive\nanticausativization widely attested in the Tohoku dialects, though the\nphonological shape of the morphemes is not completely the same: the passive and\nthe potential suffixes are identical to those of Standard Japanese, namely\npassive /rare/ and potential /e/ and /rare/, while the causative suffix is\n/sase/ in Standard Japanese but /rase/ in the Mitsukaido dialect.
\nThe difference between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese is most\nprominent with respect to the case system. The case alignment of subject and\ndirect object in the Mitsukaido dialect is accusative type, as in Standard\nJapanese. However, the morphological shapes of nominative and accusative are\ndifferent. Nominative is expressed by zero-marking (in Standard Japanese, the\ncase particle -ga is used). Accusative case form is different depending on the\nanimacy of the host nominal: inanimate direct objects are zero-marked while\nanimate direct objects are case marked with the particle -godo. This type of\nunmarked nominative and marked accusative system is widely attested in Tohoku\ndialects (some of them employ -godo as an accusative marker). Due to having two\ntypes of accusative case marking, the Mitsukaido dialect has an uncoded valency\nalternation which is not found in Standard Japanese, namely double accusative\npossessor ascension and (unproductive) double accusative type dative\nalternation. For the details of double accusative constructions, see Sasaki\n(2002).
\nAnother feature distinguishing the Mitsukaido dialect case system from that of\nStandard Japanese is the degree of elaboratedness of the oblique case particles.\nThe Mitsukaido dialect is more elaborated than Standard Japanese. The semantic\nsphere of the Standard Japanese dative/locative -ni is divided among four case\nparticles in the Mitsukaido dialect, i.e., locative -ni, dative -nge/-sa (-nge\nis used for animate goal and -sa is used for inanimate goal), and experiencer\ncase -ngani. The main usage of the experiencer case particle -ngani is a marker\nfor an experiencer oblique subject. The oblique case specific to experiencer is\nconsidered to be typologically rare. See Sasaki (2004) and Sasaki (2008b) for\ndetails.
\nThe elaboratedness of the adnominal case particles is also characteristic to\nthis dialect. The Mitsukaido dialect has three adnominal case particles:\npossessive -nga, genitive -no, and adnominal locative -na. For details on the\nusage of these case particles, see Sasaki (1997) and Sasaki & Caluianu (1997).
\n