Concerning the frequency of a verb's alternation, we decided intuitively whether\nan alternation occurs 'marginally' or 'regularly'. Some alternations marked as\noccuring 'marginally' surely have to be rediscussed.
\nConcerning the Coding Frames we did not pay attention to adjuncts.
\nOften there can be created alternations of alternations. We did not mark them but in most cases we made a comment.\nWe did not establish a causative alternation.
", "latitude": 51.344339, "longitude": 12.348633}, "name": "German (Standard)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [12.348633, 51.344339]}, "id": "stan1295"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 264, "basic_codingframe_pk": 109, "original_script": "\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0442\u044c", "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "russ1263-dress-1", "name": "odet\u02b9", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 246, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 246, "jsondata": {}, "id": "russ1263-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 29, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 29, "source": null}}], "label": "odet\u02b9", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 29, "glottocode": "russ1263", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "russ1263", "name": "Russian", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 56.0, "longitude": 38.0}, "name": "Russian"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [38.0, 56.0]}, "id": "russ1263"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 358, "basic_codingframe_pk": 183, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "cf. Coercive causative of hikikoroho (GET DRESSED)", "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243-dress-1", "name": "no direct counterpart", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 334, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 334, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 13, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 13, "source": null}}], "label": "no direct counterpart", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGNjYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 13, "glottocode": "hoch1243", "family_pk": 10, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243", "name": "Hooc\u0105k (Wisconsin Hooc\u0105k)", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 43.5, "longitude": -88.5}, "name": "Hooc\u0105k (Wisconsin Hooc\u0105k)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [271.5, 43.5]}, "id": "hoch1243"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 456, "basic_codingframe_pk": 223, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293-dress-1", "name": "dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 423, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 423, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 8, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 8, "source": null}}], "label": "dress", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 8, "glottocode": "stan1293", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293", "name": "English", "description": "#### General comment\n\nIn general the task presented by English is different in many ways from that\nfaced by most other contributors, mainly on account of the vast body of existing\nresearch on valency patterns on English but also on account of the unparalleled\nresources available for English, including very large corpora and the\nEnglish-language internet.\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nI have generally constructed what seem to me to be typical-sounding sentences.\nIn many cases I've checked on the internet or in Cobuld Wordbanks Online that\nthe examples are indeed \"ordinary\" in character, but I haven't restricted myself\nat this stage to using all and only corpus-documented examples.", "markup_description": "In general the task presented by English is different in many ways from that\nfaced by most other contributors, mainly on account of the vast body of existing\nresearch on valency patterns on English but also on account of the unparalleled\nresources available for English, including very large corpora and the\nEnglish-language internet.
\nI have generally constructed what seem to me to be typical-sounding sentences.\nIn many cases I've checked on the internet or in Cobuld Wordbanks Online that\nthe examples are indeed \"ordinary\" in character, but I haven't restricted myself\nat this stage to using all and only corpus-documented examples.
", "latitude": 53.0, "longitude": -1.0}, "name": "English"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-1.0, 53.0]}, "id": "stan1293"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 541, "basic_codingframe_pk": 242, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "alternative form: \u00fajc\u00e1me\u00ed = take-REFL", "jsondata": {}, "id": "bora1263-dress-1", "name": "u\u00e1c\u00f3", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 506, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 506, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bora1263-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 4, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 4, "source": null}}, {"pk": 542, "basic_codingframe_pk": 242, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "baby\u00e1ro = singular action, bab\u00e1\u00f1u = multiple action", "jsondata": {}, "id": "bora1263-dress-2", "name": "baby\u00e1ro", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 506, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 506, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bora1263-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 4, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 4, "source": null}}], "label": "u\u00e1c\u00f3, baby\u00e1ro", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0REMDAwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "South America", "pk": 4, "glottocode": "bora1263", "family_pk": 4, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bora1263", "name": "Bora", "description": "#### General comment\n\nany noun phrase (argument or adjunct) is always optional (except for subjects\nwith some forms of verbal predicates). It was not possible to apply a test using\nthe sentence frame suggested in the manual to distinguish between arguments and\nadjuncts. The Bora coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of\nthe pre-defined role frame with the corresponding Bora case marking.\n\nThe database includes as coded alternations causative, reflexive and reciprocal\nderivation, which are all productive. There is a separate derivational system,\nwhich is relatively unproductive, which combines transitivity marking and verbal\nnumber marking (see examples under SIT). These alternations are not taken into\naccount in this database.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nthe major resource for argument/adjunct identification is case marking which\napplies regularly to all noun phrases except that accusative case is marked only\non animates (-ke), unmarked for inanimates\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nsubjects may be cross-referenced by suffixes on the verb\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nword order is not a resource for argument identification, as it is mostly free\nexcept for some restricions on subjects: first and second person subject\npronouns procliticize to the verb, some forms of predicates require overt\nsubject noun phrases that precede the verb. If in such a construction a\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nData marked as \"elicited from native speaker\" was elicited by Frank Seifart\nduring field work in Peru in April 2010 and by telephone in March 2011.\nApplicability of alternations was also elicited on these two occasions.", "markup_description": "any noun phrase (argument or adjunct) is always optional (except for subjects\nwith some forms of verbal predicates). It was not possible to apply a test using\nthe sentence frame suggested in the manual to distinguish between arguments and\nadjuncts. The Bora coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of\nthe pre-defined role frame with the corresponding Bora case marking.
\nThe database includes as coded alternations causative, reflexive and reciprocal\nderivation, which are all productive. There is a separate derivational system,\nwhich is relatively unproductive, which combines transitivity marking and verbal\nnumber marking (see examples under SIT). These alternations are not taken into\naccount in this database.
\nthe major resource for argument/adjunct identification is case marking which\napplies regularly to all noun phrases except that accusative case is marked only\non animates (-ke), unmarked for inanimates
\nsubjects may be cross-referenced by suffixes on the verb
\nword order is not a resource for argument identification, as it is mostly free\nexcept for some restricions on subjects: first and second person subject\npronouns procliticize to the verb, some forms of predicates require overt\nsubject noun phrases that precede the verb. If in such a construction a
\nData marked as \"elicited from native speaker\" was elicited by Frank Seifart\nduring field work in Peru in April 2010 and by telephone in March 2011.\nApplicability of alternations was also elicited on these two occasions.
", "latitude": -2.16666666667, "longitude": -72.3333333333}, "name": "Bora"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [287.6666666667, -2.16666666667]}, "id": "bora1263"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 631, "basic_codingframe_pk": 282, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "contains causativizer -king", "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245-dress-1", "name": "pakeking", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 589, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 589, "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 31, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 31, "source": null}}], "label": "pakeking", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 31, "glottocode": "sril1245", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245", "name": "Sri Lanka Malay", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 6.92, "longitude": 79.86}, "name": "Sri Lanka Malay"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [79.86, 6.92]}, "id": "sril1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 715, "basic_codingframe_pk": 302, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yaqu1251-dress-1", "name": "a\u2019ana", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 669, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 669, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yaqu1251-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 33, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 33, "source": null}}], "label": "a\u2019ana", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNMiAzNiBMMzggMzYgTDIwIDUgTDIgMzYiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDAwREQ7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 33, "glottocode": "yaqu1251", "family_pk": 21, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yaqu1251", "name": "Yaqui", "description": "#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nThe Yaqui language exhibits a nominative-accusative case marking on nouns and\npronouns. And also a distinction between nominative, accusative, genitive and\nobject-of-postposition forms in the pronominal system.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nThe Yaqui language exhibits a preference for SOV word order. All lexical and\npronominal arguments are overtly expressed, except for third person.\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nMost of the examples used in this database come from elicitation with a native\nspeaker of Yaqui. Some other examples (few) come from the Dictionary of\nYaqui-Spanish and Spanish-Yaqui by Estrada et al (2010). When the source of one\nexample is not marked, it comes from elicitation.", "markup_description": "The Yaqui language exhibits a nominative-accusative case marking on nouns and\npronouns. And also a distinction between nominative, accusative, genitive and\nobject-of-postposition forms in the pronominal system.
\nThe Yaqui language exhibits a preference for SOV word order. All lexical and\npronominal arguments are overtly expressed, except for third person.
\nMost of the examples used in this database come from elicitation with a native\nspeaker of Yaqui. Some other examples (few) come from the Dictionary of\nYaqui-Spanish and Spanish-Yaqui by Estrada et al (2010). When the source of one\nexample is not marked, it comes from elicitation.
", "latitude": 27.5, "longitude": -110.25}, "name": "Yaqui"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [249.75, 27.5]}, "id": "yaqu1251"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 823, "basic_codingframe_pk": 317, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316-dress-1", "name": "pakein", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 757, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 757, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 16, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 16, "source": null}}], "label": "pakein", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 16, "glottocode": "indo1316", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316", "name": "Jakarta Indonesian", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -6.20924, "longitude": 106.833729}, "name": "Jakarta Indonesian"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [106.833729, -6.20924]}, "id": "indo1316"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 928, "basic_codingframe_pk": 332, "original_script": "\uc637(\uc744) \uc785\ub2e4", "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "The Korean counterpart of DRESS seems to be sort of a light verb construction where generally the meaning of the verb ibda is only clear from the object it occurs together with. When used with sangcheo 'wound' as sangcheoreul ibda the whole complex means 'get hurt, get wounded', but used with a word that denotes an object of clothing (with os 'clothes' as a generic word) the complex means DRESS. Although the object may appear with accusative marking -eul/-reul as in the name of this verb entry, it is not clear whether this complex predicate is intransitive or transitive. While in some contexts the clothing object word appears with case marking and prosodically separate from the verb, in some other contexts there is no case marking on the nominal, and prosodically the whole complex seems to be one unit (similar to German Fahrrad fahren 'to cycle'). Note that in the latter case, the verb ibda seems to retain its older phonological form nibda (as explained here: http://krdic.naver.com/detail.nhn?docid=31344700 [accessed 2014-03-19]), instantiating a regressive nasal assimilation on the syllable-final, unreleased aleolar stop (which in turn is an allophone of an underlying, alveolar fricative which is realised as such intervocalically elsewhere), resulting in [on:ipta] vs. *[osipta]. Apart from the prosodic-phonological observation (which is rather impressionistic here), it is not possible to say things such as jamba-reul os=ibda jacket-ACC cloth=put_on.DECL, which is why it is not sure whether one could call this verb to be intransitive either, although in the morphological causative, dative-marking on the patient argument with the os=ibda form seems odd and accusative-marking seems to be preferred, quite contrary to what one would expect from the case marking of an additional argument when applying causative to a transitive verb.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "kore1280-dress-1", "name": "os ibda", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 845, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 845, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kore1280-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 20, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 20, "source": null}}], "label": "os ibda", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiM5OTAwOTk7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 20, "glottocode": "kore1280", "family_pk": 13, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kore1280", "name": "Korean (Spoken Korean as used in and around Seoul)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nKorean is spoken by approximately 70 million (Lee and Ramsey 2000: 1, Yeon 2003:\n17) people mainly on the Korean peninsula. Many varieties exist also outside the\npeninsula, reaching from Northern China far out to Central Asia. This database\nshows valency properties of Modern South Korean (henceforth Korean, see also\ndiscussion below) which is based on the dialect of Seoul (see Song 2012),\nalthough contrary to standard sources such as Sohn (1999), an emphasis has been\nput on what is commonly used in spoken usage.\n\nKorean is an agglutinating language with a basic word order often stated as SOV,\nalthough it may be flexible depending on information structure and discourse\nfactors. Word order may become less flexible as soon as case markers are\ndropped, and whenever there are double nominative or double accusative\nconstructions (see comments on ordering resources though).\n\nThe genetic affiliation of Korean is notoriously disputed, with three different\nmain stances on this: The first stance is that Korean is an Altaic language (Lee\n2008), the second that it might be distantly related to Japanese (Lee and Ramsey\n2000), and the third that it is simply a language isolate (Sohn 1999).\nEspecially the latter suggestion is highly misleading:\n\nFirstly, monographs such as Lee and Ramsey 2000 explain that it is probable that\nmultiple related languages were spoken by ancient kingdoms, and probably the\nlanguage of Shilla gave rise to what is now considered Korean. However, data\nseems to be scarce and not much can be said about the different languages spoken\non the Korean peninsula during that period.\n\nSecondly, a huge deal of socio-politically motivated language ideology is\nobvious, yet far too often overlooked in Korean linguistics (and beyond), and it\nis curious that with 'Korean' we almost always refer to Modern Standard South\nKorean. Prescriptive movements and over-standardisation (see Park 2010) seems to\nbe a popular sociolinguistic practice fed by nationalism and high pride of one's\nown language. As a consequence, regional variation is commonly downplayed within\nKorean linguistics, and as a result, material on variation of Korean covers\nrelatively few linguistic areas and is generally very dense (see King 2006, for\nexample).\n\nThe past years have seen an ongoing change of perception, at least in\nnon-capital parts of Korea as well as international linguistics. Although not\nwidely acknowledged yet, Jeju spoken in Jeju Province has been classified as\na critically endangered language (Moseley 2010), and renowned figures in the\nfield of endangered languages and Korean linguistics (Matthias Brenzinger, p.c.\nand William O'Grady, p.c.) support the view that Korean is only a language\nisolate by ideology, but not by empirical fact, since it should more\nappropriately seen as constituting a small Koreanic language family of at least\ntwo languages (see Kang 2007 for a rough sketch of Korean's little sister\nlanguage Jeju).\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nKorean uses case marking to flag verbal arguments. Syntactically, case markers\nmay be affixed to simple nouns and noun phrases. The syntactic status of case\nmarkers is disputed, with some counting them all as postpositions (see Yeon\n2003: 22 or Sohn 1999: 293 for an overview); and also the number of different\ncases is not agreed upon. Case stacking is possible on nouns. Case markers are\ncommonly dropped in colloquial speech and give rise to certain ambiguities. The\ndifferences between colloquial and literary Korean have not been acknowledged\nenough in the literature, and some of the content of this database might seem\nwrong to some scholars who have been trained in a Korean schooling system. The\nappearance of nominative and accusative case markers may depend on discourse\nfactors similar to differential argument marking (see Lee and Thompson 1989, as\none of few studies), with more extreme (but certainly more interesting) studies\nsuggesting that Korean 'case' markers might not be case markers at all (cf.\nSch\u00fctze 2001).\n\nNote that with respect to the dative case marking, there seems to be sort of\na differential marking in Korean where only animate nouns can receive dative\nmarking, and inanimate nouns in corresponding functions receive locative\nmarking.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nKorean verbs do not inflect with respect to person, number or gender. A special\ncase might be the agglutination of the honorific suffix -si- which is coreferent\nwith an A or S argument, and never co-occurs with the first person being the\nsubject of a verb due to sociolinguistic motivations.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nMany scholars (for example Yeon 2003: 18 or Sohn 1999: 293) see Korean as\na scrambling language where the order of constituents is fairly free as long as\nthe predicate comes last. This conclusion has been drawn on the simple\nobservation that as long as every NP in a sentence bears case marking, putting\nthe constituents in different order does not seem to lead to ungrammaticality.\n\nFrom the viewpoint of how Korean is actually used, the generalisations on Korean\nword order are far too simplistic. As shown in a few examples in this database,\nfor example one in the layout for GIVE, case markers are not employed as often\nas a reference grammar might suggest, and the lack of case marking on NPs often\nleads to strict word order. Furthermore, in cases where we have double\nnominative or double accusative constructions the word order of the verbal\narguments is fairly fixed. There are interesting studies on Japanese however\n(cf. Hinds 1981) which suggest that this 'fixed' word order might exist only in\nthe 'intuition' of a native speaker (or more specifically, my humble self),\nsince it has been reported that Japanese grammarians frequently utter the same\nthread of thought, although actual spoken Japanese shows that the abovementioned\nword order variations might well be possible under certain conditions.\n\nAs Sohn (1999: 293) himself mentions, \"in actual utterances, a speaker tends to\nplace an animate, definite and/or specific noun phrase before the other noun\nphrases\", and observing 'free word order' in Korean should rather be taken with\na pinch of salt.\n\nAlso, Korean word order and case marking seems to ineract in a very complex way\nwith information structure, referentiality and definiteness. This is an area\nthat has been widely neglected in the study of Korean. The study of these areas\nshould show that Korean word order is by far not that 'liberal' as is constantly\nreiterated in grammatical descriptions.\n\n#### Criteria used when judging if an alternation occurs regularly/marginally/never\n\n\"Regularly\" means that a verb in the alternated form under discussion is\ngrammatically acceptable and common to me. \"Marginally\" means that subjectively,\nI have not come across these constructions very frequently, or that a verb in\nthis alternation sounds quite odd, maybe because I would not use the verb that\nway but rather use an alternative paraphrase. It can also mean that I am simply\nnot sure if you can say that this way because I have never had the need to. As\nyou can see, verbs marked as \"marginally\" are marked as such more various\nreasons which may depend more on my individual meta-linguistic judgment. For\nthis reason I have always tried to avoid ticking this option as much as I could.\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nThe data is based on introspection of the contributor (Soung-U Kim),\na German-born male linguist of Korean descent, as well as on the grammatical\njudgment of two persons consulted for his BA thesis (completed in 2011), with\ntwo other persons consulted in 2013/2014 during the elaboration of this\ndatabase. Whenever the grammatically of an expression does not seem to be\nuniversally acceptable, I indicated it in the comment field. Sometimes I googled\nthe existence of some forms I use (in order to maximally exclude idiolectal and\nbilingual interference), but I am aware that this method may have its pitfalls\nas well and should be seen under a sceptical eye. Note that although I did not\nreceive Korean schooling, I spent several years in Korea as a child, with\nSouthern Jeolla Korean being my L1. I am well aware of the problems of data\ncollection through introspection, and surely studies on Korean with a much\ngreater range of native speakers (who have grown up in Seoul) will show much\nmore reliable data than the present set. I hope that the present database can\nrather give some 'nudges' into directions of more sophisticated research.\n\nA lot of 'verb entries' are either complex predicates or tend to be used as\nsuch, and I have given some information in each entry. As mentioned, a special\nemphasis has been put on the naturalness of certain verb forms and constructions\n(see FRIGHTEN, for example), and contrary to well-known sources such as Yeon\n(2003) I have decided basic coding patterns rather following my intuition on the\nnaturalness of a construction in informal usage, and several examples show\nspoken Korean which differs quite strongly from the Korean normally shown in\ngrammars.\n\nThe transcription of Korean follows the regulations of the Revised Romanisation\nof 2000. Primary texts in examples indicate the actual pronunciation of Korean\nmorphemes (largely excluding phonological changes happening across wod\nboundaries), with the spacing following the Korean script. The analyzed text\nstrictly follows a phonemic representation, which also applies to the verb\nentries. The glossing follows the Leipzig Glossing rules. The original script\nfields sometimes contain differently romanised examples from existing monographs\nin English.\n\nPersonal pronouns only exist for 1st and 2nd person. However, for third person\ndemonstratives sometimes I have chosen 3SG as their gloss since demostratives in\nKorean can be quite complex, involving a three-way distinction into proximal,\nmedial and distal, and behaving much like nouns in terms of the affixes they can\ntake on.\n\nWhenever a verb is discussed here that is actually included in the database,\nI tried to write it in capital letters.", "markup_description": "Korean is spoken by approximately 70 million (Lee and Ramsey 2000: 1, Yeon 2003:\n17) people mainly on the Korean peninsula. Many varieties exist also outside the\npeninsula, reaching from Northern China far out to Central Asia. This database\nshows valency properties of Modern South Korean (henceforth Korean, see also\ndiscussion below) which is based on the dialect of Seoul (see Song 2012),\nalthough contrary to standard sources such as Sohn (1999), an emphasis has been\nput on what is commonly used in spoken usage.
\nKorean is an agglutinating language with a basic word order often stated as SOV,\nalthough it may be flexible depending on information structure and discourse\nfactors. Word order may become less flexible as soon as case markers are\ndropped, and whenever there are double nominative or double accusative\nconstructions (see comments on ordering resources though).
\nThe genetic affiliation of Korean is notoriously disputed, with three different\nmain stances on this: The first stance is that Korean is an Altaic language (Lee\n2008), the second that it might be distantly related to Japanese (Lee and Ramsey\n2000), and the third that it is simply a language isolate (Sohn 1999).\nEspecially the latter suggestion is highly misleading:
\nFirstly, monographs such as Lee and Ramsey 2000 explain that it is probable that\nmultiple related languages were spoken by ancient kingdoms, and probably the\nlanguage of Shilla gave rise to what is now considered Korean. However, data\nseems to be scarce and not much can be said about the different languages spoken\non the Korean peninsula during that period.
\nSecondly, a huge deal of socio-politically motivated language ideology is\nobvious, yet far too often overlooked in Korean linguistics (and beyond), and it\nis curious that with 'Korean' we almost always refer to Modern Standard South\nKorean. Prescriptive movements and over-standardisation (see Park 2010) seems to\nbe a popular sociolinguistic practice fed by nationalism and high pride of one's\nown language. As a consequence, regional variation is commonly downplayed within\nKorean linguistics, and as a result, material on variation of Korean covers\nrelatively few linguistic areas and is generally very dense (see King 2006, for\nexample).
\nThe past years have seen an ongoing change of perception, at least in\nnon-capital parts of Korea as well as international linguistics. Although not\nwidely acknowledged yet, Jeju spoken in Jeju Province has been classified as\na critically endangered language (Moseley 2010), and renowned figures in the\nfield of endangered languages and Korean linguistics (Matthias Brenzinger, p.c.\nand William O'Grady, p.c.) support the view that Korean is only a language\nisolate by ideology, but not by empirical fact, since it should more\nappropriately seen as constituting a small Koreanic language family of at least\ntwo languages (see Kang 2007 for a rough sketch of Korean's little sister\nlanguage Jeju).
\nKorean uses case marking to flag verbal arguments. Syntactically, case markers\nmay be affixed to simple nouns and noun phrases. The syntactic status of case\nmarkers is disputed, with some counting them all as postpositions (see Yeon\n2003: 22 or Sohn 1999: 293 for an overview); and also the number of different\ncases is not agreed upon. Case stacking is possible on nouns. Case markers are\ncommonly dropped in colloquial speech and give rise to certain ambiguities. The\ndifferences between colloquial and literary Korean have not been acknowledged\nenough in the literature, and some of the content of this database might seem\nwrong to some scholars who have been trained in a Korean schooling system. The\nappearance of nominative and accusative case markers may depend on discourse\nfactors similar to differential argument marking (see Lee and Thompson 1989, as\none of few studies), with more extreme (but certainly more interesting) studies\nsuggesting that Korean 'case' markers might not be case markers at all (cf.\nSch\u00fctze 2001).
\nNote that with respect to the dative case marking, there seems to be sort of\na differential marking in Korean where only animate nouns can receive dative\nmarking, and inanimate nouns in corresponding functions receive locative\nmarking.
\nKorean verbs do not inflect with respect to person, number or gender. A special\ncase might be the agglutination of the honorific suffix -si- which is coreferent\nwith an A or S argument, and never co-occurs with the first person being the\nsubject of a verb due to sociolinguistic motivations.
\nMany scholars (for example Yeon 2003: 18 or Sohn 1999: 293) see Korean as\na scrambling language where the order of constituents is fairly free as long as\nthe predicate comes last. This conclusion has been drawn on the simple\nobservation that as long as every NP in a sentence bears case marking, putting\nthe constituents in different order does not seem to lead to ungrammaticality.
\nFrom the viewpoint of how Korean is actually used, the generalisations on Korean\nword order are far too simplistic. As shown in a few examples in this database,\nfor example one in the layout for GIVE, case markers are not employed as often\nas a reference grammar might suggest, and the lack of case marking on NPs often\nleads to strict word order. Furthermore, in cases where we have double\nnominative or double accusative constructions the word order of the verbal\narguments is fairly fixed. There are interesting studies on Japanese however\n(cf. Hinds 1981) which suggest that this 'fixed' word order might exist only in\nthe 'intuition' of a native speaker (or more specifically, my humble self),\nsince it has been reported that Japanese grammarians frequently utter the same\nthread of thought, although actual spoken Japanese shows that the abovementioned\nword order variations might well be possible under certain conditions.
\nAs Sohn (1999: 293) himself mentions, \"in actual utterances, a speaker tends to\nplace an animate, definite and/or specific noun phrase before the other noun\nphrases\", and observing 'free word order' in Korean should rather be taken with\na pinch of salt.
\nAlso, Korean word order and case marking seems to ineract in a very complex way\nwith information structure, referentiality and definiteness. This is an area\nthat has been widely neglected in the study of Korean. The study of these areas\nshould show that Korean word order is by far not that 'liberal' as is constantly\nreiterated in grammatical descriptions.
\n\"Regularly\" means that a verb in the alternated form under discussion is\ngrammatically acceptable and common to me. \"Marginally\" means that subjectively,\nI have not come across these constructions very frequently, or that a verb in\nthis alternation sounds quite odd, maybe because I would not use the verb that\nway but rather use an alternative paraphrase. It can also mean that I am simply\nnot sure if you can say that this way because I have never had the need to. As\nyou can see, verbs marked as \"marginally\" are marked as such more various\nreasons which may depend more on my individual meta-linguistic judgment. For\nthis reason I have always tried to avoid ticking this option as much as I could.
\nThe data is based on introspection of the contributor (Soung-U Kim),\na German-born male linguist of Korean descent, as well as on the grammatical\njudgment of two persons consulted for his BA thesis (completed in 2011), with\ntwo other persons consulted in 2013/2014 during the elaboration of this\ndatabase. Whenever the grammatically of an expression does not seem to be\nuniversally acceptable, I indicated it in the comment field. Sometimes I googled\nthe existence of some forms I use (in order to maximally exclude idiolectal and\nbilingual interference), but I am aware that this method may have its pitfalls\nas well and should be seen under a sceptical eye. Note that although I did not\nreceive Korean schooling, I spent several years in Korea as a child, with\nSouthern Jeolla Korean being my L1. I am well aware of the problems of data\ncollection through introspection, and surely studies on Korean with a much\ngreater range of native speakers (who have grown up in Seoul) will show much\nmore reliable data than the present set. I hope that the present database can\nrather give some 'nudges' into directions of more sophisticated research.
\nA lot of 'verb entries' are either complex predicates or tend to be used as\nsuch, and I have given some information in each entry. As mentioned, a special\nemphasis has been put on the naturalness of certain verb forms and constructions\n(see FRIGHTEN, for example), and contrary to well-known sources such as Yeon\n(2003) I have decided basic coding patterns rather following my intuition on the\nnaturalness of a construction in informal usage, and several examples show\nspoken Korean which differs quite strongly from the Korean normally shown in\ngrammars.
\nThe transcription of Korean follows the regulations of the Revised Romanisation\nof 2000. Primary texts in examples indicate the actual pronunciation of Korean\nmorphemes (largely excluding phonological changes happening across wod\nboundaries), with the spacing following the Korean script. The analyzed text\nstrictly follows a phonemic representation, which also applies to the verb\nentries. The glossing follows the Leipzig Glossing rules. The original script\nfields sometimes contain differently romanised examples from existing monographs\nin English.
\nPersonal pronouns only exist for 1st and 2nd person. However, for third person\ndemonstratives sometimes I have chosen 3SG as their gloss since demostratives in\nKorean can be quite complex, involving a three-way distinction into proximal,\nmedial and distal, and behaving much like nouns in terms of the affixes they can\ntake on.
\nWhenever a verb is discussed here that is actually included in the database,\nI tried to write it in capital letters.
", "latitude": 36.6331621, "longitude": 128.23242188}, "name": "Korean (Spoken Korean as used in and around Seoul)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [128.23242188, 36.6331621]}, "id": "kore1280"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1018, "basic_codingframe_pk": 373, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "/nkwi-\u0113-k-u-t\u016b\u0294\u00fa (s-ate\u0294)/; CPL-CAUS-POT-CAUS-be.inside (POSS-clothes); This verb is not basic. It is a derived causative of a more basic active verb. The basic verb is nkw-i-tu\u0294u sate\u0294, an unergative verb lexicalized with an old iterative prefix (i-). The basic verb literally means 'to put oneself (in clothes)'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235-dress-1", "name": "nkw-\u0113-k-u-t\u016b\u0294\u00fa", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 930, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 930, "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 36, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 36, "source": null}}], "label": "nkw-\u0113-k-u-t\u016b\u0294\u00fa", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNMiAzNiBMMzggMzYgTDIwIDUgTDIgMzYiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiM5OTAwOTk7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 36, "glottocode": "zenz1235", "family_pk": 23, "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235", "name": "Zenzontepec Chatino", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 16.5334303, "longitude": -97.4953304}, "name": "Zenzontepec Chatino"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [262.5046696, 16.5334303]}, "id": "zenz1235"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1127, "basic_codingframe_pk": 391, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-dress-1", "name": "wamanes", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1018, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1018, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 26, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 26, "source": null}}], "label": "wamanes", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMEZGMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 26, "glottocode": "nenn1238", "family_pk": 17, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238", "name": "Nen", "description": "#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nCase (ergative/absolutive), around 12 case suffixes. ERG/ABS neutralisation in\nsingular case forms of pronouns only.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nVerb indexes up to two arguments, undergoer by prefix and actor by suffix. Only\naround 25 verbs are morphologically intransitive: all but 4 of them belonging to\na special 'positional' class, the rest being 'be', 'come' (lit. hither-be), 'go'\n(lit. 'thither-be') and 'walk'. Other syntactically monovalent verbs use\na morphologically middle construction with a person/number-invariant prefix plus\na person/number sensitive suffix. The 'undergoer' verb prefixes are used for\nboth direct and indirect objects, though these are flagged by different cases\n(absolutive and dative) on the corresponding free NPs.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nWord order is predominantly SOV (i.e. APV), though with some flexibility allowed\nby discourse factors. However, in the very productive 'experiencer object'\nconstruction used for most physical sensations like pain or disease, however,\nthe order is PAV, i.e. the experiencer of the pain is generally placed first\ndespite the fact that on other grounds it is the undergoer: it takes absolutive\ncase and is cross-reference by the undergoer prefix.", "markup_description": "Case (ergative/absolutive), around 12 case suffixes. ERG/ABS neutralisation in\nsingular case forms of pronouns only.
\nVerb indexes up to two arguments, undergoer by prefix and actor by suffix. Only\naround 25 verbs are morphologically intransitive: all but 4 of them belonging to\na special 'positional' class, the rest being 'be', 'come' (lit. hither-be), 'go'\n(lit. 'thither-be') and 'walk'. Other syntactically monovalent verbs use\na morphologically middle construction with a person/number-invariant prefix plus\na person/number sensitive suffix. The 'undergoer' verb prefixes are used for\nboth direct and indirect objects, though these are flagged by different cases\n(absolutive and dative) on the corresponding free NPs.
\nWord order is predominantly SOV (i.e. APV), though with some flexibility allowed\nby discourse factors. However, in the very productive 'experiencer object'\nconstruction used for most physical sensations like pain or disease, however,\nthe order is PAV, i.e. the experiencer of the pain is generally placed first\ndespite the fact that on other grounds it is the undergoer: it takes absolutive\ncase and is cross-reference by the undergoer prefix.
", "latitude": -8.581021, "longitude": 142.119141}, "name": "Nen"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [142.119141, -8.581021]}, "id": "nenn1238"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1225, "basic_codingframe_pk": 411, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "The P in the basic coding frame can be either the person that gets dressed ('She dresses me', cf. ex. 36) or the thing put on ('I put my clothes on', cf. ex. 264).", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241-dress-1", "name": "\u01c2aasinn", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1104, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1104, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 27, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 27, "source": null}}, {"pk": 1226, "basic_codingframe_pk": 411, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "The P in the basic coding frame can be either the person that gets dressed (cf. ex. 38) or the thing put on (cf. ex. 35).", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241-dress-2", "name": "n\u01c1aa", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1104, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1104, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 27, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 27, "source": null}}], "label": "\u01c2aasinn, n\u01c1aa", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMEZGRkY7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 27, "glottocode": "nuuu1241", "family_pk": 18, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241", "name": "N\u01c0\u01c0ng", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -28.434883, "longitude": 21.31897}, "name": "N\u01c0\u01c0ng"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [21.31897, -28.434883]}, "id": "nuuu1241"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1320, "basic_codingframe_pk": 418, "original_script": "\u0623\u0644\u0628\u0633", "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "A stem IV verb; Causative of stem I verb of the same root: labisa 'dress' (intransitive).", "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318-dress-1", "name": "\u02bealbasa", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1192, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1192, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 25, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 25, "source": null}}], "label": "\u02bealbasa", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRkZGRkY7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 25, "glottocode": "stan1318", "family_pk": 16, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318", "name": "Modern Standard Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic)", "description": "#### General comment\n\n * Language family: Afro Asiatic > Semitic > Centralsemitic > Arabic\n * National language in 26 states\n * In all Arabic speaking communities there is a Diglossical situation with three varieties of Arabic:\n 1. Arabic Vernaculars - varieties of Arabic dialects, learned as a native language\n 2. Classical Arabic (CA) - the language of the Quran used in liturgical acts\n 3. Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) - used as lingua franca in interdialectical comunication, in media, education, street-signs, etc.; acquired as L2 through education\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\n * MSA is an accusative language and has a three-case system:MSA is a VSO language with no fixed word order.
\nAround 90 % of the data is elicited and consulted with two native speakers of\nhasaniya (dialect of Arabic in Mauretania) both fluently speaking MSA.
\nAdditional data is gained from naturalistic written texts of modern Arabic\nliteratur, source: http://arabicorpus.byu.edu/
", "latitude": 27.96, "longitude": 43.85}, "name": "Modern Standard Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [43.85, 27.96]}, "id": "stan1318"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1410, "basic_codingframe_pk": 452, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "to dress", "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248-dress-1", "name": "\u0142i\u010d'elal", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1280, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1280, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 3, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 3, "source": null}}], "label": "\u0142i\u010d'elal", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6Izk5MDA5OTtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 3, "glottocode": "bezh1248", "family_pk": 3, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248", "name": "Bezhta", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 42.12, "longitude": 46.03}, "name": "Bezhta"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [46.03, 42.12]}, "id": "bezh1248"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1498, "basic_codingframe_pk": 546, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "This verb may also occur, although marginally, with an inanimate P (mainly belonging to a restricted set, e.g., clothing), with the meaning 'wear', as in alla festa molte signore vestivano l'abito lungo, 'at the party, many ladies wore the evening gown'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282-dress-1", "name": "vestire", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1364, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1364, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 15, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 15, "source": null}}], "label": "vestire", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 15, "glottocode": "ital1282", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282", "name": "Italian (Standard Italian)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nItalian is a nominative-accusative language, with some domains where the\nencoding of arguments follows an active and marginally an ergative patterning.\nThe syntactic function of arguments is signalled by agreement and word order for\nthe nuclear arguments of the clause, A and P. Recipients and other non-core and\nperipheral arguments (i.e., adjuncts) are expressed by means of prepositions.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nThere are no cases, apart from a residual accusative and dative form for clitic\npronouns, used, respectively, for core and non-core arguments (e.g., recipients,\nlocative adjuncts etc.). Most typically peripheral arguments, i.e., adjuncts,\nare coded through prepositional phrases.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nAgreement is always with the A/S argument in simple tenses. In compound tenses\nthere occurs split agreement when P is realized by a pronoun: the finite verb\nalways agrees with A, whilst the past participle agrees with the pronominal\nP (ergative orientation). S always agrees with the finite verb in simple tenses.\nIn compound tenses the past participle agrees with S if the verb is\nunaccusative, whilst it reverts to the unmarked masculine singular if the verb\nis unergative.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nSyntactically, Italian is an SVO language, characterized by pragmatic rigidity\nand relative syntactic freedom, with tension between the basic SV(O) order and\na pragmatic principle, whereby focal P arguments occur after the verb (Bentley\n2006: 363, 368-370, 2008 and references therein).\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nDictionaries, scientific literature, naturalistic written examples, constructed\nby native speaker linguists, the Online Corpus of Written Italian ItWac (Baroni\n& Kilgariff 2006).", "markup_description": "Italian is a nominative-accusative language, with some domains where the\nencoding of arguments follows an active and marginally an ergative patterning.\nThe syntactic function of arguments is signalled by agreement and word order for\nthe nuclear arguments of the clause, A and P. Recipients and other non-core and\nperipheral arguments (i.e., adjuncts) are expressed by means of prepositions.
\nThere are no cases, apart from a residual accusative and dative form for clitic\npronouns, used, respectively, for core and non-core arguments (e.g., recipients,\nlocative adjuncts etc.). Most typically peripheral arguments, i.e., adjuncts,\nare coded through prepositional phrases.
\nAgreement is always with the A/S argument in simple tenses. In compound tenses\nthere occurs split agreement when P is realized by a pronoun: the finite verb\nalways agrees with A, whilst the past participle agrees with the pronominal\nP (ergative orientation). S always agrees with the finite verb in simple tenses.\nIn compound tenses the past participle agrees with S if the verb is\nunaccusative, whilst it reverts to the unmarked masculine singular if the verb\nis unergative.
\nSyntactically, Italian is an SVO language, characterized by pragmatic rigidity\nand relative syntactic freedom, with tension between the basic SV(O) order and\na pragmatic principle, whereby focal P arguments occur after the verb (Bentley\n2006: 363, 368-370, 2008 and references therein).
\nDictionaries, scientific literature, naturalistic written examples, constructed\nby native speaker linguists, the Online Corpus of Written Italian ItWac (Baroni\n& Kilgariff 2006).
", "latitude": 43.0, "longitude": 12.0}, "name": "Italian (Standard Italian)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [12.0, 43.0]}, "id": "ital1282"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1602, "basic_codingframe_pk": 672, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "Regular causative of wat- 'put on, wear'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245-dress-1", "name": "wai\u0294-mett", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1451, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1451, "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 5, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 5, "source": null}}], "label": "wai\u0294-mett", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 5, "glottocode": "chhi1245", "family_pk": 5, "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245", "name": "Chintang", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 26.947628, "longitude": 87.211189}, "name": "Chintang"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [87.211189, 26.947628]}, "id": "chhi1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1702, "basic_codingframe_pk": 685, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Unknown", "comment": "It originally means 'cover'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245-dress-1", "name": "takun", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1544, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1544, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 23, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 23, "source": null}}], "label": "takun", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRkZGMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "South America", "pk": 23, "glottocode": "mapu1245", "family_pk": 15, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245", "name": "Mapudungun", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -38.0, "longitude": -72.0}, "name": "Mapudungun"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [288.0, -38.0]}, "id": "mapu1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1809, "basic_codingframe_pk": 694, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "Derived verb: fa- causative prefix, mw\u00e2mw\u00e2 \"dress oneself\"", "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244-dress-1", "name": "famw\u00e2mw\u00e2", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1630, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1630, "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 32, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 32, "source": null}}], "label": "famw\u00e2mw\u00e2", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 32, "glottocode": "xara1244", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244", "name": "X\u00e2r\u00e2c\u00f9\u00f9", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -21.6666666667, "longitude": 166.0}, "name": "X\u00e2r\u00e2c\u00f9\u00f9"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [166.0, -21.6666666667]}, "id": "xara1244"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1902, "basic_codingframe_pk": 703, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259-dress-1", "name": "ni\u0294-i-t", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1718, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1718, "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 30, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 30, "source": null}}], "label": "ni\u0294-i-t", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRjY2MDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 30, "glottocode": "como1259", "family_pk": 20, "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259", "name": "Sliammon", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 49.906, "longitude": -124.6179}, "name": "Sliammon"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [235.38209999999998, 49.906]}, "id": "como1259"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2002, "basic_codingframe_pk": 710, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241-dress-1", "name": "ku o\u0323", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1800, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1800, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 7, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 7, "source": null}}], "label": "ku o\u0323", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGRkZGRjtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 7, "glottocode": "emai1241", "family_pk": 6, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241", "name": "Emai", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 7.08333333333, "longitude": 5.91666666667}, "name": "Emai"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [5.91666666667, 7.08333333333]}, "id": "emai1241"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2097, "basic_codingframe_pk": 745, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259-dress-1", "name": "tet-yv--", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1891, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1891, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 10, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 10, "source": null}}], "label": "tet-yv--", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkZGRjtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 10, "glottocode": "even1259", "family_pk": 8, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259", "name": "Evenki", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 56.0, "longitude": 125.0}, "name": "Evenki"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [125.0, 56.0]}, "id": "even1259"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2210, "basic_codingframe_pk": 758, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "Du\u014b 'dress' has an obvious semantic connection with du\u014b 'enter', but the construction of du\u014b 'dress' cannot be predicted from that of du\u014b 'enter'. Du\u014b 'dress' has an obligatory argument not included in the role frame 'A dresses P', represented as Z in the coding frame. By contrast, P in the construction of du\u014b is optional, and its omission triggers a reflexive reading.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-dress-1", "name": "du\u014b", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1979, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1979, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 22, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 22, "source": null}}], "label": "du\u014b", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNERDAwMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 22, "glottocode": "mand1436", "family_pk": 14, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436", "name": "Mandinka", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 13.4166666667, "longitude": -16.0}, "name": "Mandinka"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-16.0, 13.4166666667]}, "id": "mand1436"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2413, "basic_codingframe_pk": 793, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "The intransitive verb corresponding to the transitive verb kiseru 'dress' is kiru 'get dressed', but morphologically the transitive kiseru derives from the intransitive kiru and not vice versa.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nucl1643-dress-1", "name": "kiseru", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2165, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2165, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nucl1643-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 18, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 18, "source": null}}], "label": "kiseru", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0NDQ0NDQztzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 18, "glottocode": "nucl1643", "family_pk": 9, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nucl1643", "name": "Japanese (standard)", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 35.6895, "longitude": 139.6917}, "name": "Japanese (standard)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [139.6917, 35.6895]}, "id": "nucl1643"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2499, "basic_codingframe_pk": 840, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kett1243-dress-1", "name": "sa\u2070", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2249, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2249, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kett1243-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 19, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 19, "source": null}}], "label": "sa\u2070", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDk5MDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 19, "glottocode": "kett1243", "family_pk": 12, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kett1243", "name": "Ket", "description": "#### General comment\n\nRE: Ommission of reflexive pronounsRE: Ommission of reflexive pronouns
\nKet verbs regularly omit the object NP verb externally and also omit the\nverb-external reflexive pronoun, but the verb-internal marker that indexes this\nvalent is never dropped for discourse reasons.
RE: Object omission (NP ommission)
\nKet regularly drops its verb-external object NP to background it in discourse.\nHowever, the verb-internal object marker remains regardless of discourse\nfunction.
Subject indexing is the same for all intransitive verbs. It varies as\nconditioned by verb status (a conjugation category).
", "latitude": 19.33, "longitude": -88.47}, "name": "Yucatec Maya (dialect of Quintana Roo, zona maya)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [271.53, 19.33]}, "id": "yuca1254"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2737, "basic_codingframe_pk": 903, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "icel1247-dress-1", "name": "kl\u00e6\u00f0a", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2443, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2443, "jsondata": {}, "id": "icel1247-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 14, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 14, "source": null}}], "label": "kl\u00e6\u00f0a", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 14, "glottocode": "icel1247", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "icel1247", "name": "Icelandic", "description": "#### General comment\n\nIcelandic is one of the most archaic modern Germanic languages. It has\nmaintained most of the morphological distinctions from Old Icelandic, most of\nthe paradigmatic distinctions and a huge proportion of the vocabulary. Some\nphonological changes have occurred, and some word order and constructional\npatterns have fallen into disuse. Icelanders of today can read Old Icelandic\nwithout problems.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nIcelandic has four cases, nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. These are\nmarked on nouns, pronouns, all adjectival elements and the definite article. The\ndefinite artice is cliticized on nouns, after inflectional morphemes, which in\nturn means that definite nouns in Icelandic have double case marking. Example:\n\"mann\" acc.sg., \"manni\" dat.sg, vs. \"manninn\" acc.sg.def and \"manninum\"\ndat.sg.def.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nThere is nominative agreement in Icelandic which means that if the subject is in\nthe nominative case, the verb agrees with the subject, if the object is in the\nnominative case, the verb agrees with the object. In essence this means that\nIcelandic does not have subject-verb agreement but nominative-verb agreement.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nIcelandic is a V2 language with a relatively fixed SVO word order in both main\nand subordinate clauses. It does not allow scrambling like German and\ntopicalizations are very rare in the spoken language. It has subject\u2013verb\ninversion, it has V1 structures, like the socalled \"Narrative Inversion\", it has\nobject shift, i.e. the rerversal of the order between an object and a sentence\nadverb, and it has \"stylistic fronting\", i.e. the preposing of a particle or an\nadverb in subjectless subordinate clauses (cf. \u00der\u00e1insson 2007).\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nJ\u00f3hanna Bar\u00f0dal is a native speaker linguist.", "markup_description": "Icelandic is one of the most archaic modern Germanic languages. It has\nmaintained most of the morphological distinctions from Old Icelandic, most of\nthe paradigmatic distinctions and a huge proportion of the vocabulary. Some\nphonological changes have occurred, and some word order and constructional\npatterns have fallen into disuse. Icelanders of today can read Old Icelandic\nwithout problems.
\nIcelandic has four cases, nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. These are\nmarked on nouns, pronouns, all adjectival elements and the definite article. The\ndefinite artice is cliticized on nouns, after inflectional morphemes, which in\nturn means that definite nouns in Icelandic have double case marking. Example:\n\"mann\" acc.sg., \"manni\" dat.sg, vs. \"manninn\" acc.sg.def and \"manninum\"\ndat.sg.def.
\nThere is nominative agreement in Icelandic which means that if the subject is in\nthe nominative case, the verb agrees with the subject, if the object is in the\nnominative case, the verb agrees with the object. In essence this means that\nIcelandic does not have subject-verb agreement but nominative-verb agreement.
\nIcelandic is a V2 language with a relatively fixed SVO word order in both main\nand subordinate clauses. It does not allow scrambling like German and\ntopicalizations are very rare in the spoken language. It has subject\u2013verb\ninversion, it has V1 structures, like the socalled \"Narrative Inversion\", it has\nobject shift, i.e. the rerversal of the order between an object and a sentence\nadverb, and it has \"stylistic fronting\", i.e. the preposing of a particle or an\nadverb in subjectless subordinate clauses (cf. \u00der\u00e1insson 2007).
\nJ\u00f3hanna Bar\u00f0dal is a native speaker linguist.
", "latitude": 65.0, "longitude": -17.0}, "name": "Icelandic"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-17.0, 65.0]}, "id": "icel1247"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2854, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1015, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "Huku=o is not a fixed expression. It can be replaced by other type of expression referring to clothes.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249-dress-1", "name": "kise-ru", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2545, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2545, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 12, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 12, "source": null}}], "label": "kise-ru", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0NDQ0NDQztzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 12, "glottocode": "hokk1249", "family_pk": 9, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249", "name": "Hokkaido Japanese", "description": "#### General comment\n\nBrief description of the Hokkaido dialect of Japanese\n\nIn this database, the Hokkaido dialect is used to refer to the variety of\nJapanese spoken in the northern island Hokkaido and the islands around Hokkaido.\nAccording to Ono & Okuda (1999), Japanese speakers begin to settle on the\ncoastal area of southern Hokkaido from the late 16th century. Most of the\npopulation in those days came from the northern Tohoku region. From the mid 19th\ncentury to mid 20th century, intensive immigration to Hokkaido took place from\nall the part of Japan. However, in this case, too, the majority (around 40%)\ncame from Tohoku (Ono & Okuda 1999). Consequently, the Hokkaido Dialect has\ninherited a considerable number of features from the northern Tohoku dialects.\n\nThe Hokkaido dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting\nthis dialect appear in the modern Japanese literature. The most famous example\nis the conversational part of Kanikosen 'The Crab Canning Ship' written by\nTakiji Kobayashi in 1929.\n\nThe population of Hokkaido is 5,502,944 (June 30th, 2011). However, the exact\nnumber of speakers of the Hokkaido dialect is unknown.\n\nThe Hokkaido dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese\ndialects and it is subdivided into the coastal variety and the inland variety.\nThe coastal variety preserves lots of characteristics of the Tohoku dialects,\nsuch as the imperative use of the conditional inflection, neutralization of /i/\nand /e/, intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/, spotaneous voice morphology with\n/rasar/, and so on. Certain inland dialects are reported to preserve some degree\nof dialectal features of their region of origin (Suga 2011). For example, the\ndialect spoken in Hombetsu (Nakagawa district, Tokachi) has the copula ja/zja,\nfound in the Tokushima dialect spoken in the Shikoku island. According to\nIshigaki (1976), the inland variety underwent influence from the coastal\nvariety, even though the origin of the population is not the same as that of the\ncoastal variety. The most important grammatical feature of the Hokkaido dialect\nfor this database is the existence of anticausativization with /rasar/\nsuffixation. This grammatical phenomenon is found in both varieties.\n\nThe most notable feature of this dialect is the voice system. Standard Japanese\nhas three productive voice suffixes, i.e., passive, potential and causative. On\nthe other hand, the Hokkaido dialect has four productive voice suffixes: passive\n/rare/ (traditionally, /rae/), potential /e/ or /rare/ (traditionally, /-ni\ni:/), causative /sase/ (traditionally, /rase/ or /rahe/) and spontaneous\n/rasar/. The spontaneous suffix /rasar/ is used as a marker for\nanticausativization. For the details of anticausativization in the Hokkaido\ndialect, see Sasaki & Yamazaki (2006).\n\nDue to the existence of productive antucausative morphology, the Hokkaido\ndialect displays different characteristics of the transitivity alternation from\nthat of Standard Japanese. Concerning transitivization, both Standard Japanese\nand the Hokkaido dialect have lexical and morphological causativization. For\nexample, ak-u 'open.INTR-NPST' -- ake-ru 'open.TR-NPST' and hasir-u 'run-NPST'\n-- hasir-ase-ru 'run-CAUS-NPST'. On the other hand, concerning\nintransitivization, they show difference. Standard Japanese has only lexical\nanticausativization, such as or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST'.\nThe Hokkaido dialect has both lexical and morphological anticausativization,\ne.g., or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST' and nur-u 'paint-NPST' --\nnur-asar-u 'paint-SP-NPST (become painted)'.\n\nThe data in this database is obtained from a relatively younger speaker in his\n30s, whose speech has lost some traditional dialectal features such as\nneutralization of /i/ and /e/ and intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/. However,\nanticausativization remains active in his speech.", "markup_description": "Brief description of the Hokkaido dialect of Japanese
\nIn this database, the Hokkaido dialect is used to refer to the variety of\nJapanese spoken in the northern island Hokkaido and the islands around Hokkaido.\nAccording to Ono & Okuda (1999), Japanese speakers begin to settle on the\ncoastal area of southern Hokkaido from the late 16th century. Most of the\npopulation in those days came from the northern Tohoku region. From the mid 19th\ncentury to mid 20th century, intensive immigration to Hokkaido took place from\nall the part of Japan. However, in this case, too, the majority (around 40%)\ncame from Tohoku (Ono & Okuda 1999). Consequently, the Hokkaido Dialect has\ninherited a considerable number of features from the northern Tohoku dialects.
\nThe Hokkaido dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting\nthis dialect appear in the modern Japanese literature. The most famous example\nis the conversational part of Kanikosen 'The Crab Canning Ship' written by\nTakiji Kobayashi in 1929.
\nThe population of Hokkaido is 5,502,944 (June 30th, 2011). However, the exact\nnumber of speakers of the Hokkaido dialect is unknown.
\nThe Hokkaido dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese\ndialects and it is subdivided into the coastal variety and the inland variety.\nThe coastal variety preserves lots of characteristics of the Tohoku dialects,\nsuch as the imperative use of the conditional inflection, neutralization of /i/\nand /e/, intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/, spotaneous voice morphology with\n/rasar/, and so on. Certain inland dialects are reported to preserve some degree\nof dialectal features of their region of origin (Suga 2011). For example, the\ndialect spoken in Hombetsu (Nakagawa district, Tokachi) has the copula ja/zja,\nfound in the Tokushima dialect spoken in the Shikoku island. According to\nIshigaki (1976), the inland variety underwent influence from the coastal\nvariety, even though the origin of the population is not the same as that of the\ncoastal variety. The most important grammatical feature of the Hokkaido dialect\nfor this database is the existence of anticausativization with /rasar/\nsuffixation. This grammatical phenomenon is found in both varieties.
\nThe most notable feature of this dialect is the voice system. Standard Japanese\nhas three productive voice suffixes, i.e., passive, potential and causative. On\nthe other hand, the Hokkaido dialect has four productive voice suffixes: passive\n/rare/ (traditionally, /rae/), potential /e/ or /rare/ (traditionally, /-ni\ni:/), causative /sase/ (traditionally, /rase/ or /rahe/) and spontaneous\n/rasar/. The spontaneous suffix /rasar/ is used as a marker for\nanticausativization. For the details of anticausativization in the Hokkaido\ndialect, see Sasaki & Yamazaki (2006).
\nDue to the existence of productive antucausative morphology, the Hokkaido\ndialect displays different characteristics of the transitivity alternation from\nthat of Standard Japanese. Concerning transitivization, both Standard Japanese\nand the Hokkaido dialect have lexical and morphological causativization. For\nexample, ak-u 'open.INTR-NPST' -- ake-ru 'open.TR-NPST' and hasir-u 'run-NPST'\n-- hasir-ase-ru 'run-CAUS-NPST'. On the other hand, concerning\nintransitivization, they show difference. Standard Japanese has only lexical\nanticausativization, such as or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST'.\nThe Hokkaido dialect has both lexical and morphological anticausativization,\ne.g., or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST' and nur-u 'paint-NPST' --\nnur-asar-u 'paint-SP-NPST (become painted)'.
\nThe data in this database is obtained from a relatively younger speaker in his\n30s, whose speech has lost some traditional dialectal features such as\nneutralization of /i/ and /e/ and intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/. However,\nanticausativization remains active in his speech.
", "latitude": 43.691708, "longitude": 142.866211}, "name": "Hokkaido Japanese"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [142.866211, 43.691708]}, "id": "hokk1249"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2982, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1065, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "Causativized antipassive i-mi-re \u2018dress sb\u2019 (vt) < i-mi \u2018put on clothes\u2019 (vi) < mi \u2018put on sth\u2019 (vt)", "jsondata": {}, "id": "ainu1240-dress-1", "name": "i-mi-re", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2636, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2636, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ainu1240-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 1, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 1, "source": null}}], "label": "i-mi-re", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwMDBERDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 1, "glottocode": "ainu1240", "family_pk": 1, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ainu1240", "name": "Ainu (Southern Hokkaido)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nA genetic isolate, Ainu shows considerable dialectal variation: Hokkaido\n(Northeastern and Southwestern), Sakhalin, and Kurile groups. Ainu is\nagglutinating, polysynthetic and incorporating, with SV/AOV constituent order.\nIt is predominantly head-marking. Personal pronouns in the subject (A/S) and\nobject (O) position are often omitted: Ainu is a so-called pro-drop language but\nverbal cross-referencing markers are obligatory.\n\nSome verbs employ different stems for singular and plural. In the case of\nintransitive verbs, plurality refers to the number of S referents, while in the\ncase of transitive verbs plurality refers to the number of O or patientive\nA referents.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nArguments do not inflect for case in Ainu: A and O are distinguished by their\nrelative position in clause structure and by verbal cross-referencing markers.\n\nObliques are marked by postpositions: locative ta , allative un (for inanimatre\nGoal) and dative e-un <head-ALL> (for animate Goal), ablative wa , instrumental\nani, comitative tura/turano, traversal peka (\u2018over\u2019), mutative ne (\u2018as\u2019; <ne\nCOP). Most case postpositions not only clearly originate in verbs but are still\nin a very early stage of the grammaticalization as they can often occur without\nrespective nouns, as in (a).\n\na. itanki huraye hine (itanki) ani i=ko-i-puniA genetic isolate, Ainu shows considerable dialectal variation: Hokkaido\n(Northeastern and Southwestern), Sakhalin, and Kurile groups. Ainu is\nagglutinating, polysynthetic and incorporating, with SV/AOV constituent order.\nIt is predominantly head-marking. Personal pronouns in the subject (A/S) and\nobject (O) position are often omitted: Ainu is a so-called pro-drop language but\nverbal cross-referencing markers are obligatory.
\nSome verbs employ different stems for singular and plural. In the case of\nintransitive verbs, plurality refers to the number of S referents, while in the\ncase of transitive verbs plurality refers to the number of O or patientive\nA referents.
\nArguments do not inflect for case in Ainu: A and O are distinguished by their\nrelative position in clause structure and by verbal cross-referencing markers.
\nObliques are marked by postpositions: locative ta , allative un (for inanimatre\nGoal) and dative e-un <head-ALL> (for animate Goal), ablative wa , instrumental\nani, comitative tura/turano, traversal peka (\u2018over\u2019), mutative ne (\u2018as\u2019; <ne\nCOP). Most case postpositions not only clearly originate in verbs but are still\nin a very early stage of the grammaticalization as they can often occur without\nrespective nouns, as in (a).
\na. itanki huraye hine (itanki) ani i=ko-i-puni
\nbowl wash and bowl INST INDF.O=to.APPL-APASS-raise
\n\u2018She washed a bowl and with (that bowl) he served me food.\u2019 Ani (INST) ( < ani 'hold sth') may also be interpreted as lit. \u2018holding (that bowl)' - zero-anaphora. However, if ani were still a verb here we would need a coordinating conjunction after ani, so it really has an intermediate status between a verb and postposition.
The system of grammatical relations in Ainu shows mixed alignment. There is\na tripartite alignment (distinct marking for S, A, and O) in 1PL pronominal\nverbal marking, viz. the prefix ci= marks A, the suffix =as S, and un= O for the\nfirst person exclusive, and a= A, =an S, and i= O for indefinite person.\nIndefinite is not only used to refer to the indefinite speaker or addressee, but\nalso as the first person plural inclusive, second person singular/plural\nhonorific, and logophoric (person of the protagonist). The latter is common in\nfolktales because they have the structure of reported discourse with the whole\nstory being a quote; for convenience the logophoric is translated as \u2018I\u2019 but is\nglossed as IND. There are elements of a neutral system in the second and third\nperson pronominal verbal marking, viz. A, S, and O are marked by e= in 2SG and\nby eci= in 2PL, and the third person is always zero-marked; independent personal\npronouns are the same for A, S, and O in all persons. There is also one feature\nof a nominative/accusative system: A=S, and O are distinct in the 1SG pronominal\nverbal marking, viz. 1SG ku= marks A, S, and en= O
\nIn pronominal verbal marking of transitive verbs, A affixes are, in most cases,\nplaced before O markers. However, when it comes to the interaction of first and\nsecond person participants, person marking on verbs is not always analyzable as\nARGa-ARGo-VERB, and it is, indeed, subject to considerable dialectal variation.
\nThe A set of prefixes is also employed in the inalienable possessive\nconstruction, where they are attached to the head noun (possessee) to mark the\nperson and number of the possessor. The head noun is additionally marked with\nthe allomorphic possessive suffixes -V or -(V)hV which copy a root-final vowel\nonce or twice with the epenthetic /h/ being inserted, viz. -ha/-hu/-ho/-he/-hi\nfor vowel-final roots, as in ku=sapa-ha (1SG.A=head-POSS) \u2018my head\u2019, and\n-a(ha)/-u(hu)/-o(ho)/-e(he)/-i(hi) for consonant-final roots, as in ci=setur-u\nor ci=setur-uhu (1PL.(EXC).A=back-POSS) \u2018our backs\u2019 . Relational nouns as heads\ndiffer from common nouns in that they employ the O set of prefixes to mark the\nperson and number of the possessor, viz. en=sam (1SG.O=near) \u2018near me\u2019.\nPossessive suffixes are attached to relational nouns only if the possessor is\n3SG/PL (zero-marked), viz. \u00d8=sam-a (3.O=near-POSS) \u2018near him/her/it\u2019.
\nAlienable possession is encoded by the relative clause-based periphrastic\nconstruction with the verb kor \u2018have sth/sb\u2019 as the predicate and the possessor\nas the subject; the head noun (possessee) is left unmarked: ku=\u00d8=kor kamuy\n[1SG.\u0410=3.O=have god] \u2018my god\u2019 (lit. \u2018the god (that) I have\u2019).
\nSV/AOV constituent order.
\nIn double object construction, generally A-R-T-V, but there are also other ordering options, they are pragmatically motivated.
Attributives are prepositive.
\nSubordinate clauses always precede main clauses.
\nIs based on previous documentation of Ainu which had been undertaken by the\ncontributor or other researchers of Ainu. Data from existing Ainu dictionaries\nand published texts have been used extensively, as well as those that are in the\nprocess of preparation for a publication (see forthcoming). For most examples,\nthere exist respective audio materials.
\nThe contributor, Anna Bugaeva, has been working on Ainu since 1997 after her\ngraduation from Department of Japanese (St. Petersburg University) in 1996. She\nwas supervised by an Ainu specialist Tomomi Satoo in her PhD (obtained in 2004\nfrom Hokkaido University) and by an Ainu specialist Hiroshi Nakagawa in her two\npost-docs (Chiba University). Currently, she works as an assistant professor at\nWaseda Institute for Advanced Study, Waseda University.
", "latitude": 43.0, "longitude": 143.0}, "name": "Ainu (Southern Hokkaido)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [143.0, 43.0]}, "id": "ainu1240"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 3085, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1073, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526-dress-1", "name": "kise-ru", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2717, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2717, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526-dress", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 24, "parameter_pk": 53, "contribution_pk": 24, "source": null}}], "label": "kise-ru", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0NDQ0NDQztzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 24, "glottocode": "east2526", "family_pk": 9, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526", "name": "Mitsukaido Japanese", "description": "#### General comment\n\nBrief description of the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese\n\nThe Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese is spoken in the area around the former\nMitsukaido city (now incorporated into Joso city). This area is 50km north to\nTokyo, the capital of Japan. In spite of its close location to the economic and\ncultural center of Japan, the dialect spoken in this area displays phonological\nand morphosyntactic characteristics different from Standard Japanese.\n\nThis dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese dialect.\nAs mentioned below, this dialect shows Tohoku-like characteristics and\nKanto-like characteristics simultaneously in both phonology and morphosyntax.\nThis Janus-faced characteristic is a reflection of the geographical situation,\ni.e., the southern edge of Tohoku dialects.\n\nThe population of Joso city is 64,880 (August 16th, 2011). Due to its low inflow\nof population, most of the population can be regarded as a speaker of the\nMitsukaido dialect. The old generation preserves the classic type of grammatical\ntraits, while the speech of the younger generation undergoes influence from\nStandard Japanese. Sasaki (2011) illustrates that the loss of dialectal features\nin younger generation is overwhelming but not complete.\n\nThis dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting the\ngrammatical traits of this dialect are found in the modern Japanese literature.\nThe most well-known case is the conversational part of the novel Tsuchi 'The\nEarth' written by Takashi Nagatsuka in 1910.\n\nThe data used in this article is obtained from speakers aged over 80 and these\ndata reflect traditional features.\n\nThe phonemic inventory of this dialect is the same as that of Standard Japanese.\nThis dialect has five vowel phonemes /i, e, a, o, u/ and 11 consonant phonemes\n/p, t, k, b, d, g, n, m, r, w, j/. The dialect lacks lexical accent.\n\nDespite of its phonemic affinity with Standard Japanese, the surface phonetic\nrealization of cognate words is different from that of Standard Japanese because\nof the phonological processes not found in Standard Japanese: 'breath' is [iki]\nin SJ and [egi] in MD; 'square floor cushion' is [dzabutoN] in SJ and [dzaptoN]\nin MD. Most of the phonological processes responsible for the surface difference\nare those also found in Tohoku dialects, for example, intervocalic voicing of\nstops, regressive devoicing of /z/ and /b/, lowering of /i/ without onset, and\nso on. The phonological processes interact in a complex manner. Some\ninteractions exhibit multiple opaque interactions. For the details of the\ninteraction of phonological processes, see Sasaki (2008a). In order to avoid\nconfusion, I adopt systematic allophones, i.e., the output of the phonological\nprocesses, as notation in this database ([ng] stands for velar nasal).\n\nConcerning the morphology relating to valency alternation, both affinity and\ndifference are found between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese. The\nvoice system of the Mitsukaido dialect is almost the same as that of Standard\nJapanese, i.e., both the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese have\nproductive passive, causative and potential formation, but lack productive\nanticausativization widely attested in the Tohoku dialects, though the\nphonological shape of the morphemes is not completely the same: the passive and\nthe potential suffixes are identical to those of Standard Japanese, namely\npassive /rare/ and potential /e/ and /rare/, while the causative suffix is\n/sase/ in Standard Japanese but /rase/ in the Mitsukaido dialect.\n\nThe difference between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese is most\nprominent with respect to the case system. The case alignment of subject and\ndirect object in the Mitsukaido dialect is accusative type, as in Standard\nJapanese. However, the morphological shapes of nominative and accusative are\ndifferent. Nominative is expressed by zero-marking (in Standard Japanese, the\ncase particle -ga is used). Accusative case form is different depending on the\nanimacy of the host nominal: inanimate direct objects are zero-marked while\nanimate direct objects are case marked with the particle -godo. This type of\nunmarked nominative and marked accusative system is widely attested in Tohoku\ndialects (some of them employ -godo as an accusative marker). Due to having two\ntypes of accusative case marking, the Mitsukaido dialect has an uncoded valency\nalternation which is not found in Standard Japanese, namely double accusative\npossessor ascension and (unproductive) double accusative type dative\nalternation. For the details of double accusative constructions, see Sasaki\n(2002).\n\nAnother feature distinguishing the Mitsukaido dialect case system from that of\nStandard Japanese is the degree of elaboratedness of the oblique case particles.\nThe Mitsukaido dialect is more elaborated than Standard Japanese. The semantic\nsphere of the Standard Japanese dative/locative -ni is divided among four case\nparticles in the Mitsukaido dialect, i.e., locative -ni, dative -nge/-sa (-nge\nis used for animate goal and -sa is used for inanimate goal), and experiencer\ncase -ngani. The main usage of the experiencer case particle -ngani is a marker\nfor an experiencer oblique subject. The oblique case specific to experiencer is\nconsidered to be typologically rare. See Sasaki (2004) and Sasaki (2008b) for\ndetails.\n\nThe elaboratedness of the adnominal case particles is also characteristic to\nthis dialect. The Mitsukaido dialect has three adnominal case particles:\npossessive -nga, genitive -no, and adnominal locative -na. For details on the\nusage of these case particles, see Sasaki (1997) and Sasaki & Caluianu (1997).\n\n * Sasaki, Kan (1997) Possessive, Genitive and Adnominal Locative in the Mitsukaido Dialect. In: Tooru Hayashi & Peri Bhaskararao (eds.), Studies in Possessive Expressions. 117-141. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.\n * Sasaki, Kan and Daniela Caluianu (1997) Mitsukaidoo hoogen no rentaishuushoku kaku [Adnominal case particles in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese]. Gengo Kenkyu 111. 59-83.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2002) The double accusative possessor ascension construction in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese. In: Tasaku Tsunoda (ed.), Basic Materials in Minority Languages 2002. (ELPR Publications Series B003) 91-114.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2004) Mitsukaidoo Hoogen ni okeru Kaku to Bunpookankei [Case and Grammatical Relations in the Mitsukaido Dialect of Japanese]. Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2008a) Hardening alternation in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese. Gengo Kenkyu 134. 85-117.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2008b) What can the Mitsukaido dialect case system tell about syntactic theory? Journal of General Linguistics 11. 53-84\n * Sasaki, Kan (2011) Mitsukaidoo hoogen: hyoojungo ni chikai noni tooi hoogen [The Mitsukaido dialect: a dialect that is both close to and far from Standard Japanese]. In: Megumi Kurebito (ed.), Nihon no Kikigengo [Endangered Languages in Japan]. 101-138. Sapporo: Hokkaido University Press.", "markup_description": "Brief description of the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese
\nThe Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese is spoken in the area around the former\nMitsukaido city (now incorporated into Joso city). This area is 50km north to\nTokyo, the capital of Japan. In spite of its close location to the economic and\ncultural center of Japan, the dialect spoken in this area displays phonological\nand morphosyntactic characteristics different from Standard Japanese.
\nThis dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese dialect.\nAs mentioned below, this dialect shows Tohoku-like characteristics and\nKanto-like characteristics simultaneously in both phonology and morphosyntax.\nThis Janus-faced characteristic is a reflection of the geographical situation,\ni.e., the southern edge of Tohoku dialects.
\nThe population of Joso city is 64,880 (August 16th, 2011). Due to its low inflow\nof population, most of the population can be regarded as a speaker of the\nMitsukaido dialect. The old generation preserves the classic type of grammatical\ntraits, while the speech of the younger generation undergoes influence from\nStandard Japanese. Sasaki (2011) illustrates that the loss of dialectal features\nin younger generation is overwhelming but not complete.
\nThis dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting the\ngrammatical traits of this dialect are found in the modern Japanese literature.\nThe most well-known case is the conversational part of the novel Tsuchi 'The\nEarth' written by Takashi Nagatsuka in 1910.
\nThe data used in this article is obtained from speakers aged over 80 and these\ndata reflect traditional features.
\nThe phonemic inventory of this dialect is the same as that of Standard Japanese.\nThis dialect has five vowel phonemes /i, e, a, o, u/ and 11 consonant phonemes\n/p, t, k, b, d, g, n, m, r, w, j/. The dialect lacks lexical accent.
\nDespite of its phonemic affinity with Standard Japanese, the surface phonetic\nrealization of cognate words is different from that of Standard Japanese because\nof the phonological processes not found in Standard Japanese: 'breath' is [iki]\nin SJ and [egi] in MD; 'square floor cushion' is [dzabutoN] in SJ and [dzaptoN]\nin MD. Most of the phonological processes responsible for the surface difference\nare those also found in Tohoku dialects, for example, intervocalic voicing of\nstops, regressive devoicing of /z/ and /b/, lowering of /i/ without onset, and\nso on. The phonological processes interact in a complex manner. Some\ninteractions exhibit multiple opaque interactions. For the details of the\ninteraction of phonological processes, see Sasaki (2008a). In order to avoid\nconfusion, I adopt systematic allophones, i.e., the output of the phonological\nprocesses, as notation in this database ([ng] stands for velar nasal).
\nConcerning the morphology relating to valency alternation, both affinity and\ndifference are found between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese. The\nvoice system of the Mitsukaido dialect is almost the same as that of Standard\nJapanese, i.e., both the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese have\nproductive passive, causative and potential formation, but lack productive\nanticausativization widely attested in the Tohoku dialects, though the\nphonological shape of the morphemes is not completely the same: the passive and\nthe potential suffixes are identical to those of Standard Japanese, namely\npassive /rare/ and potential /e/ and /rare/, while the causative suffix is\n/sase/ in Standard Japanese but /rase/ in the Mitsukaido dialect.
\nThe difference between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese is most\nprominent with respect to the case system. The case alignment of subject and\ndirect object in the Mitsukaido dialect is accusative type, as in Standard\nJapanese. However, the morphological shapes of nominative and accusative are\ndifferent. Nominative is expressed by zero-marking (in Standard Japanese, the\ncase particle -ga is used). Accusative case form is different depending on the\nanimacy of the host nominal: inanimate direct objects are zero-marked while\nanimate direct objects are case marked with the particle -godo. This type of\nunmarked nominative and marked accusative system is widely attested in Tohoku\ndialects (some of them employ -godo as an accusative marker). Due to having two\ntypes of accusative case marking, the Mitsukaido dialect has an uncoded valency\nalternation which is not found in Standard Japanese, namely double accusative\npossessor ascension and (unproductive) double accusative type dative\nalternation. For the details of double accusative constructions, see Sasaki\n(2002).
\nAnother feature distinguishing the Mitsukaido dialect case system from that of\nStandard Japanese is the degree of elaboratedness of the oblique case particles.\nThe Mitsukaido dialect is more elaborated than Standard Japanese. The semantic\nsphere of the Standard Japanese dative/locative -ni is divided among four case\nparticles in the Mitsukaido dialect, i.e., locative -ni, dative -nge/-sa (-nge\nis used for animate goal and -sa is used for inanimate goal), and experiencer\ncase -ngani. The main usage of the experiencer case particle -ngani is a marker\nfor an experiencer oblique subject. The oblique case specific to experiencer is\nconsidered to be typologically rare. See Sasaki (2004) and Sasaki (2008b) for\ndetails.
\nThe elaboratedness of the adnominal case particles is also characteristic to\nthis dialect. The Mitsukaido dialect has three adnominal case particles:\npossessive -nga, genitive -no, and adnominal locative -na. For details on the\nusage of these case particles, see Sasaki (1997) and Sasaki & Caluianu (1997).
\n