Concerning the frequency of a verb's alternation, we decided intuitively whether\nan alternation occurs 'marginally' or 'regularly'. Some alternations marked as\noccuring 'marginally' surely have to be rediscussed.
\nConcerning the Coding Frames we did not pay attention to adjuncts.
\nOften there can be created alternations of alternations. We did not mark them but in most cases we made a comment.\nWe did not establish a causative alternation.
", "latitude": 51.344339, "longitude": 12.348633}, "name": "German (Standard)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [12.348633, 51.344339]}, "id": "stan1295"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 258, "basic_codingframe_pk": 102, "original_script": "\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044c", "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "russ1263-cook-1", "name": "gotovit\u02b9", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 241, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 241, "jsondata": {}, "id": "russ1263-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 29, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 29, "source": null}}, {"pk": 259, "basic_codingframe_pk": 102, "original_script": "\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044c", "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "russ1263-cook-2", "name": "varit\u02b9", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 241, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 241, "jsondata": {}, "id": "russ1263-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 29, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 29, "source": null}}], "label": "gotovit\u02b9, varit\u02b9", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 29, "glottocode": "russ1263", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "russ1263", "name": "Russian", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 56.0, "longitude": 38.0}, "name": "Russian"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [38.0, 56.0]}, "id": "russ1263"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 352, "basic_codingframe_pk": 175, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "consists of v.inact. + v.caus. lit. means 'cause sth. to be cooked'; tuuc also means 'be ripe'", "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243-cook-1", "name": "tuuc hii", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 328, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 328, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 13, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 13, "source": null}}], "label": "tuuc hii", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGNjYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 13, "glottocode": "hoch1243", "family_pk": 10, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243", "name": "Hooc\u0105k (Wisconsin Hooc\u0105k)", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 43.5, "longitude": -88.5}, "name": "Hooc\u0105k (Wisconsin Hooc\u0105k)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [271.5, 43.5]}, "id": "hoch1243"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 449, "basic_codingframe_pk": 223, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293-cook-1", "name": "cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 417, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 417, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 8, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 8, "source": null}}], "label": "cook", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 8, "glottocode": "stan1293", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293", "name": "English", "description": "#### General comment\n\nIn general the task presented by English is different in many ways from that\nfaced by most other contributors, mainly on account of the vast body of existing\nresearch on valency patterns on English but also on account of the unparalleled\nresources available for English, including very large corpora and the\nEnglish-language internet.\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nI have generally constructed what seem to me to be typical-sounding sentences.\nIn many cases I've checked on the internet or in Cobuld Wordbanks Online that\nthe examples are indeed \"ordinary\" in character, but I haven't restricted myself\nat this stage to using all and only corpus-documented examples.", "markup_description": "In general the task presented by English is different in many ways from that\nfaced by most other contributors, mainly on account of the vast body of existing\nresearch on valency patterns on English but also on account of the unparalleled\nresources available for English, including very large corpora and the\nEnglish-language internet.
\nI have generally constructed what seem to me to be typical-sounding sentences.\nIn many cases I've checked on the internet or in Cobuld Wordbanks Online that\nthe examples are indeed \"ordinary\" in character, but I haven't restricted myself\nat this stage to using all and only corpus-documented examples.
", "latitude": 53.0, "longitude": -1.0}, "name": "English"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-1.0, 53.0]}, "id": "stan1293"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 536, "basic_codingframe_pk": 245, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bora1263-cook-1", "name": "tuu", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 501, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 501, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bora1263-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 4, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 4, "source": null}}], "label": "tuu", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0REMDAwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "South America", "pk": 4, "glottocode": "bora1263", "family_pk": 4, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bora1263", "name": "Bora", "description": "#### General comment\n\nany noun phrase (argument or adjunct) is always optional (except for subjects\nwith some forms of verbal predicates). It was not possible to apply a test using\nthe sentence frame suggested in the manual to distinguish between arguments and\nadjuncts. The Bora coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of\nthe pre-defined role frame with the corresponding Bora case marking.\n\nThe database includes as coded alternations causative, reflexive and reciprocal\nderivation, which are all productive. There is a separate derivational system,\nwhich is relatively unproductive, which combines transitivity marking and verbal\nnumber marking (see examples under SIT). These alternations are not taken into\naccount in this database.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nthe major resource for argument/adjunct identification is case marking which\napplies regularly to all noun phrases except that accusative case is marked only\non animates (-ke), unmarked for inanimates\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nsubjects may be cross-referenced by suffixes on the verb\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nword order is not a resource for argument identification, as it is mostly free\nexcept for some restricions on subjects: first and second person subject\npronouns procliticize to the verb, some forms of predicates require overt\nsubject noun phrases that precede the verb. If in such a construction a\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nData marked as \"elicited from native speaker\" was elicited by Frank Seifart\nduring field work in Peru in April 2010 and by telephone in March 2011.\nApplicability of alternations was also elicited on these two occasions.", "markup_description": "any noun phrase (argument or adjunct) is always optional (except for subjects\nwith some forms of verbal predicates). It was not possible to apply a test using\nthe sentence frame suggested in the manual to distinguish between arguments and\nadjuncts. The Bora coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of\nthe pre-defined role frame with the corresponding Bora case marking.
\nThe database includes as coded alternations causative, reflexive and reciprocal\nderivation, which are all productive. There is a separate derivational system,\nwhich is relatively unproductive, which combines transitivity marking and verbal\nnumber marking (see examples under SIT). These alternations are not taken into\naccount in this database.
\nthe major resource for argument/adjunct identification is case marking which\napplies regularly to all noun phrases except that accusative case is marked only\non animates (-ke), unmarked for inanimates
\nsubjects may be cross-referenced by suffixes on the verb
\nword order is not a resource for argument identification, as it is mostly free\nexcept for some restricions on subjects: first and second person subject\npronouns procliticize to the verb, some forms of predicates require overt\nsubject noun phrases that precede the verb. If in such a construction a
\nData marked as \"elicited from native speaker\" was elicited by Frank Seifart\nduring field work in Peru in April 2010 and by telephone in March 2011.\nApplicability of alternations was also elicited on these two occasions.
", "latitude": -2.16666666667, "longitude": -72.3333333333}, "name": "Bora"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [287.6666666667, -2.16666666667]}, "id": "bora1263"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 625, "basic_codingframe_pk": 282, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245-cook-1", "name": "maasak", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 583, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 583, "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 31, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 31, "source": null}}], "label": "maasak", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 31, "glottocode": "sril1245", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245", "name": "Sri Lanka Malay", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 6.92, "longitude": 79.86}, "name": "Sri Lanka Malay"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [79.86, 6.92]}, "id": "sril1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 710, "basic_codingframe_pk": 302, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yaqu1251-cook-1", "name": "bwasa", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 664, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 664, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yaqu1251-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 33, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 33, "source": null}}], "label": "bwasa", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNMiAzNiBMMzggMzYgTDIwIDUgTDIgMzYiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDAwREQ7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 33, "glottocode": "yaqu1251", "family_pk": 21, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yaqu1251", "name": "Yaqui", "description": "#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nThe Yaqui language exhibits a nominative-accusative case marking on nouns and\npronouns. And also a distinction between nominative, accusative, genitive and\nobject-of-postposition forms in the pronominal system.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nThe Yaqui language exhibits a preference for SOV word order. All lexical and\npronominal arguments are overtly expressed, except for third person.\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nMost of the examples used in this database come from elicitation with a native\nspeaker of Yaqui. Some other examples (few) come from the Dictionary of\nYaqui-Spanish and Spanish-Yaqui by Estrada et al (2010). When the source of one\nexample is not marked, it comes from elicitation.", "markup_description": "The Yaqui language exhibits a nominative-accusative case marking on nouns and\npronouns. And also a distinction between nominative, accusative, genitive and\nobject-of-postposition forms in the pronominal system.
\nThe Yaqui language exhibits a preference for SOV word order. All lexical and\npronominal arguments are overtly expressed, except for third person.
\nMost of the examples used in this database come from elicitation with a native\nspeaker of Yaqui. Some other examples (few) come from the Dictionary of\nYaqui-Spanish and Spanish-Yaqui by Estrada et al (2010). When the source of one\nexample is not marked, it comes from elicitation.
", "latitude": 27.5, "longitude": -110.25}, "name": "Yaqui"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [249.75, 27.5]}, "id": "yaqu1251"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 817, "basic_codingframe_pk": 318, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316-cook-1", "name": "masak", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 751, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 751, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 16, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 16, "source": null}}], "label": "masak", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 16, "glottocode": "indo1316", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316", "name": "Jakarta Indonesian", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -6.20924, "longitude": 106.833729}, "name": "Jakarta Indonesian"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [106.833729, -6.20924]}, "id": "indo1316"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1012, "basic_codingframe_pk": 370, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "/nkay-u-\u0101k\u00e9\u0294/; CPL-CAUS-get.cooked", "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235-cook-1", "name": "nkay-\u016b-k\u00e9\u0294", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 924, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 924, "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 36, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 36, "source": null}}], "label": "nkay-\u016b-k\u00e9\u0294", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNMiAzNiBMMzggMzYgTDIwIDUgTDIgMzYiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiM5OTAwOTk7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 36, "glottocode": "zenz1235", "family_pk": 23, "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235", "name": "Zenzontepec Chatino", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 16.5334303, "longitude": -97.4953304}, "name": "Zenzontepec Chatino"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [262.5046696, 16.5334303]}, "id": "zenz1235"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1120, "basic_codingframe_pk": 389, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "Covers 'cook (on fire)' and 'boil', like German kochen, but not cooking in ground oven, which is dus (also a transitive verb apparently, but no inflected forms attested). Note the autobenefactive form ozs 'cook for oneself'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-cook-1", "name": "zeyas", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1012, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1012, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 26, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 26, "source": null}}, {"pk": 1121, "basic_codingframe_pk": 389, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "cook in ground oven (so far only attested as infinitive)", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-cook-2", "name": "dus", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1012, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1012, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 26, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 26, "source": null}}], "label": "zeyas, dus", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMEZGMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 26, "glottocode": "nenn1238", "family_pk": 17, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238", "name": "Nen", "description": "#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nCase (ergative/absolutive), around 12 case suffixes. ERG/ABS neutralisation in\nsingular case forms of pronouns only.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nVerb indexes up to two arguments, undergoer by prefix and actor by suffix. Only\naround 25 verbs are morphologically intransitive: all but 4 of them belonging to\na special 'positional' class, the rest being 'be', 'come' (lit. hither-be), 'go'\n(lit. 'thither-be') and 'walk'. Other syntactically monovalent verbs use\na morphologically middle construction with a person/number-invariant prefix plus\na person/number sensitive suffix. The 'undergoer' verb prefixes are used for\nboth direct and indirect objects, though these are flagged by different cases\n(absolutive and dative) on the corresponding free NPs.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nWord order is predominantly SOV (i.e. APV), though with some flexibility allowed\nby discourse factors. However, in the very productive 'experiencer object'\nconstruction used for most physical sensations like pain or disease, however,\nthe order is PAV, i.e. the experiencer of the pain is generally placed first\ndespite the fact that on other grounds it is the undergoer: it takes absolutive\ncase and is cross-reference by the undergoer prefix.", "markup_description": "Case (ergative/absolutive), around 12 case suffixes. ERG/ABS neutralisation in\nsingular case forms of pronouns only.
\nVerb indexes up to two arguments, undergoer by prefix and actor by suffix. Only\naround 25 verbs are morphologically intransitive: all but 4 of them belonging to\na special 'positional' class, the rest being 'be', 'come' (lit. hither-be), 'go'\n(lit. 'thither-be') and 'walk'. Other syntactically monovalent verbs use\na morphologically middle construction with a person/number-invariant prefix plus\na person/number sensitive suffix. The 'undergoer' verb prefixes are used for\nboth direct and indirect objects, though these are flagged by different cases\n(absolutive and dative) on the corresponding free NPs.
\nWord order is predominantly SOV (i.e. APV), though with some flexibility allowed\nby discourse factors. However, in the very productive 'experiencer object'\nconstruction used for most physical sensations like pain or disease, however,\nthe order is PAV, i.e. the experiencer of the pain is generally placed first\ndespite the fact that on other grounds it is the undergoer: it takes absolutive\ncase and is cross-reference by the undergoer prefix.
", "latitude": -8.581021, "longitude": 142.119141}, "name": "Nen"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [142.119141, -8.581021]}, "id": "nenn1238"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1218, "basic_codingframe_pk": 411, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "NB: For intr. 'cook' ('he cooks'), 'kx\u01c1uu aa(ki)', lit.: 'make food' is frequently used.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241-cook-1", "name": "\u01c3xama", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1098, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1098, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 27, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 27, "source": null}}], "label": "\u01c3xama", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMEZGRkY7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 27, "glottocode": "nuuu1241", "family_pk": 18, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241", "name": "N\u01c0\u01c0ng", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -28.434883, "longitude": 21.31897}, "name": "N\u01c0\u01c0ng"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [21.31897, -28.434883]}, "id": "nuuu1241"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1314, "basic_codingframe_pk": 418, "original_script": "\u0637\u0628\u062e", "simplex_or_complex": "Unknown", "comment": "A stem I verb", "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318-cook-1", "name": "t\u0323abah\u032ea", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1186, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1186, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 25, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 25, "source": null}}], "label": "t\u0323abah\u032ea", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRkZGRkY7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 25, "glottocode": "stan1318", "family_pk": 16, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318", "name": "Modern Standard Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic)", "description": "#### General comment\n\n * Language family: Afro Asiatic > Semitic > Centralsemitic > Arabic\n * National language in 26 states\n * In all Arabic speaking communities there is a Diglossical situation with three varieties of Arabic:\n 1. Arabic Vernaculars - varieties of Arabic dialects, learned as a native language\n 2. Classical Arabic (CA) - the language of the Quran used in liturgical acts\n 3. Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) - used as lingua franca in interdialectical comunication, in media, education, street-signs, etc.; acquired as L2 through education\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\n * MSA is an accusative language and has a three-case system:MSA is a VSO language with no fixed word order.
\nAround 90 % of the data is elicited and consulted with two native speakers of\nhasaniya (dialect of Arabic in Mauretania) both fluently speaking MSA.
\nAdditional data is gained from naturalistic written texts of modern Arabic\nliteratur, source: http://arabicorpus.byu.edu/
", "latitude": 27.96, "longitude": 43.85}, "name": "Modern Standard Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [43.85, 27.96]}, "id": "stan1318"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1404, "basic_codingframe_pk": 441, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "'to boil/to cook' it is a labile verb.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248-cook-1", "name": "helal", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1274, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1274, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 3, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 3, "source": null}}], "label": "helal", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6Izk5MDA5OTtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 3, "glottocode": "bezh1248", "family_pk": 3, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248", "name": "Bezhta", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 42.12, "longitude": 46.03}, "name": "Bezhta"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [46.03, 42.12]}, "id": "bezh1248"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1493, "basic_codingframe_pk": 546, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282-cook-1", "name": "cuocere", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1360, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1360, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 15, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 15, "source": null}}], "label": "cuocere", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 15, "glottocode": "ital1282", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282", "name": "Italian (Standard Italian)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nItalian is a nominative-accusative language, with some domains where the\nencoding of arguments follows an active and marginally an ergative patterning.\nThe syntactic function of arguments is signalled by agreement and word order for\nthe nuclear arguments of the clause, A and P. Recipients and other non-core and\nperipheral arguments (i.e., adjuncts) are expressed by means of prepositions.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nThere are no cases, apart from a residual accusative and dative form for clitic\npronouns, used, respectively, for core and non-core arguments (e.g., recipients,\nlocative adjuncts etc.). Most typically peripheral arguments, i.e., adjuncts,\nare coded through prepositional phrases.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nAgreement is always with the A/S argument in simple tenses. In compound tenses\nthere occurs split agreement when P is realized by a pronoun: the finite verb\nalways agrees with A, whilst the past participle agrees with the pronominal\nP (ergative orientation). S always agrees with the finite verb in simple tenses.\nIn compound tenses the past participle agrees with S if the verb is\nunaccusative, whilst it reverts to the unmarked masculine singular if the verb\nis unergative.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nSyntactically, Italian is an SVO language, characterized by pragmatic rigidity\nand relative syntactic freedom, with tension between the basic SV(O) order and\na pragmatic principle, whereby focal P arguments occur after the verb (Bentley\n2006: 363, 368-370, 2008 and references therein).\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nDictionaries, scientific literature, naturalistic written examples, constructed\nby native speaker linguists, the Online Corpus of Written Italian ItWac (Baroni\n& Kilgariff 2006).", "markup_description": "Italian is a nominative-accusative language, with some domains where the\nencoding of arguments follows an active and marginally an ergative patterning.\nThe syntactic function of arguments is signalled by agreement and word order for\nthe nuclear arguments of the clause, A and P. Recipients and other non-core and\nperipheral arguments (i.e., adjuncts) are expressed by means of prepositions.
\nThere are no cases, apart from a residual accusative and dative form for clitic\npronouns, used, respectively, for core and non-core arguments (e.g., recipients,\nlocative adjuncts etc.). Most typically peripheral arguments, i.e., adjuncts,\nare coded through prepositional phrases.
\nAgreement is always with the A/S argument in simple tenses. In compound tenses\nthere occurs split agreement when P is realized by a pronoun: the finite verb\nalways agrees with A, whilst the past participle agrees with the pronominal\nP (ergative orientation). S always agrees with the finite verb in simple tenses.\nIn compound tenses the past participle agrees with S if the verb is\nunaccusative, whilst it reverts to the unmarked masculine singular if the verb\nis unergative.
\nSyntactically, Italian is an SVO language, characterized by pragmatic rigidity\nand relative syntactic freedom, with tension between the basic SV(O) order and\na pragmatic principle, whereby focal P arguments occur after the verb (Bentley\n2006: 363, 368-370, 2008 and references therein).
\nDictionaries, scientific literature, naturalistic written examples, constructed\nby native speaker linguists, the Online Corpus of Written Italian ItWac (Baroni\n& Kilgariff 2006).
", "latitude": 43.0, "longitude": 12.0}, "name": "Italian (Standard Italian)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [12.0, 43.0]}, "id": "ital1282"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1597, "basic_codingframe_pk": 670, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245-cook-1", "name": "thukt", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1446, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1446, "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 5, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 5, "source": null}}], "label": "thukt", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 5, "glottocode": "chhi1245", "family_pk": 5, "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245", "name": "Chintang", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 26.947628, "longitude": 87.211189}, "name": "Chintang"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [87.211189, 26.947628]}, "id": "chhi1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1696, "basic_codingframe_pk": 685, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "It is the (low-control) causative of af\u00fcn 'cook (itr.)'; the high-control causative af\u00fcl\u00fcn has the same meaning.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245-cook-1", "name": "af\u00fcm\u00fcn", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1538, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1538, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 23, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 23, "source": null}}], "label": "af\u00fcm\u00fcn", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRkZGMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "South America", "pk": 23, "glottocode": "mapu1245", "family_pk": 15, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245", "name": "Mapudungun", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -38.0, "longitude": -72.0}, "name": "Mapudungun"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [288.0, -38.0]}, "id": "mapu1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1803, "basic_codingframe_pk": 694, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244-cook-1", "name": "chut\u00e2\u00e2", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1624, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1624, "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 32, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 32, "source": null}}], "label": "chut\u00e2\u00e2", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 32, "glottocode": "xara1244", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244", "name": "X\u00e2r\u00e2c\u00f9\u00f9", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -21.6666666667, "longitude": 166.0}, "name": "X\u00e2r\u00e2c\u00f9\u00f9"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [166.0, -21.6666666667]}, "id": "xara1244"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1896, "basic_codingframe_pk": 703, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "The root vowel may be a.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259-cook-1", "name": "\u010d\u02bc\u0259x\u0323-a-t", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1712, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1712, "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 30, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 30, "source": null}}], "label": "\u010d\u02bc\u0259x\u0323-a-t", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRjY2MDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 30, "glottocode": "como1259", "family_pk": 20, "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259", "name": "Sliammon", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 49.906, "longitude": -124.6179}, "name": "Sliammon"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [235.38209999999998, 49.906]}, "id": "como1259"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1995, "basic_codingframe_pk": 709, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241-cook-1", "name": "vbie", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1794, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1794, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 7, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 7, "source": null}}, {"pk": 1996, "basic_codingframe_pk": 709, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241-cook-2", "name": "nye\u0323", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1794, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1794, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 7, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 7, "source": null}}], "label": "vbie, nye\u0323", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGRkZGRjtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 7, "glottocode": "emai1241", "family_pk": 6, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241", "name": "Emai", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 7.08333333333, "longitude": 5.91666666667}, "name": "Emai"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [5.91666666667, 7.08333333333]}, "id": "emai1241"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2092, "basic_codingframe_pk": 745, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259-cook-1", "name": "irii-", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1886, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1886, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 10, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 10, "source": null}}], "label": "irii-", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkZGRjtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 10, "glottocode": "even1259", "family_pk": 8, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259", "name": "Evenki", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 56.0, "longitude": 125.0}, "name": "Evenki"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [125.0, 56.0]}, "id": "even1259"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2204, "basic_codingframe_pk": 754, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-cook-1", "name": "t\u00e1bi", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1973, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1973, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 22, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 22, "source": null}}], "label": "t\u00e1bi", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNERDAwMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 22, "glottocode": "mand1436", "family_pk": 14, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436", "name": "Mandinka", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 13.4166666667, "longitude": -16.0}, "name": "Mandinka"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-16.0, 13.4166666667]}, "id": "mand1436"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2324, "basic_codingframe_pk": 775, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "Simple Verb. More commonly used in complex verbs specifying the manner of cooking, e.g. 'on coals', 'in a ground oven'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255-cook-1", "name": "ganirriga", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2079, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2079, "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 17, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 17, "source": null}}, {"pk": 2325, "basic_codingframe_pk": 776, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "Complex Verb. Lit. 'cook(ing) + BE'. Lexical atelic alternant of simple verb ganirrigany. Double absolutive frame. The P is usually omitted, but this is not counted as alternation here since NP omission is frequent.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255-cook-2", "name": "wirrigaja gagba", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2079, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2079, "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 17, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 17, "source": null}}], "label": "ganirriga, wirrigaja gagba", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDAwREQ7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Australia", "pk": 17, "glottocode": "djam1255", "family_pk": 11, "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255", "name": "Jaminjung (Both Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru varieties)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nJaminjung belongs to the small Jaminjungan (or Western Mirndi) subgroup of the\ngeographically discontinuous Mirndi family, one of the non-Pama-Nyungan families\nof northern Australia. The name Jaminjung is used here for two named varieties,\nJaminjung and Ngaliwurru, which are mutually intelligible and exhibit mainly\nlexical differences. The traditional country of Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru\nspeakers is located north and south of the Victoria River around the present-day\ntownship of Timber Creek in the Northern Territory. Jaminjung is severely\nendangered in that it is no longer acquired by children; only a few dozen\nelderly speakers are alive today.\n\nA pervasive feature of Jaminjung lexicon and grammar, which proves to be highly\nrelevant for the discussion of verb classes and alternations, is a division of\nthe \u201cverbal\u201d lexicon into two distinct parts of speech. This is an areal\nphenomenon found in a number of unrelated languages in Northern Australia.\n\nInflecting verbs (IVs), i.e. those taking obligatory pronominal prefixes and\ntense and mood marking, form a closed class with only about 35 members (with\nsome variation depending on the dialect affiliation and also the age of\nindividual speakers).\n\nUninflecting verbs (UVs; also known as \"coverbs\" or \"preverbs\" in the\nliterature) can be distinguished from IVs by the fact that they cannot take\nverbal inflections. They are also distinguishable from nominals in that they do\nnot co-occur with determiners such as demonstratives. UVs form an open class\nwhich can be expanded by loan words.\n\nPredicates in Jaminjung thus can be simple (an IV on its own) or complex (a\ncombination of an IV and one or two UVs). In addition, translation equivalents\nof verbs can be collocations involving nominals, e.g. expressions with a body\npart for feelings/pain, or expressions like gugu gardbany 'rain falls' = 'to\nrain'.\n\nMost valency alternations in Jaminjung are only relevant for complex predicates.\nA valency change in this type of alternation is achieved by combining the same\nUV with different IVs resulting e.g. in inchoative vs. causative complex\npredicates. In this database, they are therefore marked as \"UV\" preceding the\nalternation name, and are considered coded alternations even though they are not\ncoded by a dedicated valency-changing morphological marker. Note also that the\nsubstitution of different IVs with the same UV can also result in other semantic\ndifferences, e.g. in lexical aspect, deictic direction of motion, instrument\nused for contact, or other more subtle differences. In this database only\nvalency-changing alternations are considered.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nJaminjung has a rich system of cases which formally are clitics occurring once\nor more than once in a phrase. Case marking of core arguments follows an\nergative-absolutive pattern, with optional ergativity. As a general rule, the\ncase frame used with a particular predicate, whether simple or complex, follows\nfrom the morphological transitivity of the inflecting verb (IV). That is,\na single absolutive argument occurs with intransitive IVs, and an\nergative-absolutive case frame (or double absolutive if ergative marking is\nomitted) is used with transitive IVs. Since the absolutive is unmarked, it is\nnot glossed in examples. The ergative has the form -ni ~ -di.\n\nErgative marking of A arguments is optional in Jaminjung; the presence vs.\nabsence of ergative marking depends on a variety of factors including the\nsemantics of the predicate, animacy and degree of agentivity of A, and lexical\nand grammatical aspect. Therefore, presence vs. absence of ergative marking was\nnot considered an alternation for the purposes of this database.\n\nRegular double absolutive marking used for both A and P of some bivalent atelic\npredicates (with intransitive IV), i.e. the ergative is not possible on As in\nthis case.\n\nDouble absolutive marking is also used for both NP objects of a semantically\ntrivalent predicate.\n\nDative case ( -gu ~ -wu) marks addressees or beneficiaries and also has\na purposive function; in addition a specialised purposive case (-ngurlung) is\nused by some speakers, and the possessive case -gina (usually appearing in\nadnominal function) can have a purposive use as well.\n\nSpatial cases are locative (-gi ~ -g ~ -ni), allative (-bina) and ablative\n(-ngunyi / -giyag). Specialised forms of these cases are found on inherently\nlocative expressions. An additional origin case (-nyunga) indicates spatial\norigin (as in 'the man from England') but also has a causal function.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nFrom the point of view of indexing morphology, inflecting verbs (IVs) fall into\ntwo non-overlapping classes. Morphologically transitive verbs in their\nnon-reflexive/reciprocal form occur with a set of pronominal prefixes which\nalways index the most agentive argument (A) and in addition the patient-like (P)\nargument. With ditransitive predicates, R rather than P is usually indexed\nexcept for a marginal alternation which is possible only in the case that P is\nanimate.\n\nThe order of prefixes is usually A followed by P, although in some cases\na portmanteau prefix is used. The 3rd person singular object (P) is not overtly\nexpressed except with a 3rd person singular subject.\n\nIn one variety, nonsingular first person P prefixes have been neutralised, i.e.\nonly the first person singular prefix is used, and an enclitic pronominal\n(identical to the dative form) is used to disambiguate for number and the\ninclusive/exclusive distinction.\n\nMorphologically intransitive verbs indicate their single argument (S) by\na pronominal prefix which in most cells of the paradigm (except 2nd person\nsingular) is identical to the A prefix. Thus, indexing more or less follows\na nominative-accusative pattern.\n\nA final indexing phenomenon is the cross-referencing of dative, locative and\nallative arguments or adjuncts by an enclitic oblique (dative) pronoun. This\n\u201cclitic doubling\u201d is restricted to animate referents.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nWord order is purely pragmatically conditioned and not employed to indicate\ngrammatical roles. Noun phrases can be freely omitted if understood from context\n(zero anaphora).\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nData in this database are from both elicited and naturalistic speech recorded\nduring multiple field trips undertaken by the author between 1993 and 2008.\nOccasional examples also come from field notes and texts recorded by Mark\nHarvey, Janet Bolt, and Michael Walsh, and Dorothea Hoffmann. Examples from\naudio- or video-recorded sessions are accompanied by the file name of the audio\nfile as archived (with annotations) in the Jaminjung DoBeS archive\n(www.mpi.nl/dobes) (rather than a page nr). Examples marked as \"field notes\" are\noverheard examples. Examples with no file name information come from transcripts\nwhich are not yet linked to archived audio files.\n\nComments on conventions:\n\nIn literal glosses of complex verbs in the \"comments\" field, the gloss of the\ninflecting verb (IV) is in capitals.\n\nSince there is no infinitive form of the inflecting verb in Jaminjung and roots\nare not produced in isolation by speakers, the 3rd singular subject (+ 3rd sg\nobject for tr.verbs) past perfective form of inflecting verbs is provided\nthroughout, as this is one of the most frequent forms.\n\nBorrowings (in verb meanings) and code switches (in examples) from Kriol, the\nEnglish-lexified Creole language spoken by most Jaminjung speakers, are marked\nby angular brackets (<...>).", "markup_description": "Jaminjung belongs to the small Jaminjungan (or Western Mirndi) subgroup of the\ngeographically discontinuous Mirndi family, one of the non-Pama-Nyungan families\nof northern Australia. The name Jaminjung is used here for two named varieties,\nJaminjung and Ngaliwurru, which are mutually intelligible and exhibit mainly\nlexical differences. The traditional country of Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru\nspeakers is located north and south of the Victoria River around the present-day\ntownship of Timber Creek in the Northern Territory. Jaminjung is severely\nendangered in that it is no longer acquired by children; only a few dozen\nelderly speakers are alive today.
\nA pervasive feature of Jaminjung lexicon and grammar, which proves to be highly\nrelevant for the discussion of verb classes and alternations, is a division of\nthe \u201cverbal\u201d lexicon into two distinct parts of speech. This is an areal\nphenomenon found in a number of unrelated languages in Northern Australia.
\nInflecting verbs (IVs), i.e. those taking obligatory pronominal prefixes and\ntense and mood marking, form a closed class with only about 35 members (with\nsome variation depending on the dialect affiliation and also the age of\nindividual speakers).
\nUninflecting verbs (UVs; also known as \"coverbs\" or \"preverbs\" in the\nliterature) can be distinguished from IVs by the fact that they cannot take\nverbal inflections. They are also distinguishable from nominals in that they do\nnot co-occur with determiners such as demonstratives. UVs form an open class\nwhich can be expanded by loan words.
\nPredicates in Jaminjung thus can be simple (an IV on its own) or complex (a\ncombination of an IV and one or two UVs). In addition, translation equivalents\nof verbs can be collocations involving nominals, e.g. expressions with a body\npart for feelings/pain, or expressions like gugu gardbany 'rain falls' = 'to\nrain'.
\nMost valency alternations in Jaminjung are only relevant for complex predicates.\nA valency change in this type of alternation is achieved by combining the same\nUV with different IVs resulting e.g. in inchoative vs. causative complex\npredicates. In this database, they are therefore marked as \"UV\" preceding the\nalternation name, and are considered coded alternations even though they are not\ncoded by a dedicated valency-changing morphological marker. Note also that the\nsubstitution of different IVs with the same UV can also result in other semantic\ndifferences, e.g. in lexical aspect, deictic direction of motion, instrument\nused for contact, or other more subtle differences. In this database only\nvalency-changing alternations are considered.
\nJaminjung has a rich system of cases which formally are clitics occurring once\nor more than once in a phrase. Case marking of core arguments follows an\nergative-absolutive pattern, with optional ergativity. As a general rule, the\ncase frame used with a particular predicate, whether simple or complex, follows\nfrom the morphological transitivity of the inflecting verb (IV). That is,\na single absolutive argument occurs with intransitive IVs, and an\nergative-absolutive case frame (or double absolutive if ergative marking is\nomitted) is used with transitive IVs. Since the absolutive is unmarked, it is\nnot glossed in examples. The ergative has the form -ni ~ -di.
\nErgative marking of A arguments is optional in Jaminjung; the presence vs.\nabsence of ergative marking depends on a variety of factors including the\nsemantics of the predicate, animacy and degree of agentivity of A, and lexical\nand grammatical aspect. Therefore, presence vs. absence of ergative marking was\nnot considered an alternation for the purposes of this database.
\nRegular double absolutive marking used for both A and P of some bivalent atelic\npredicates (with intransitive IV), i.e. the ergative is not possible on As in\nthis case.
\nDouble absolutive marking is also used for both NP objects of a semantically\ntrivalent predicate.
\nDative case ( -gu ~ -wu) marks addressees or beneficiaries and also has\na purposive function; in addition a specialised purposive case (-ngurlung) is\nused by some speakers, and the possessive case -gina (usually appearing in\nadnominal function) can have a purposive use as well.
\nSpatial cases are locative (-gi ~ -g ~ -ni), allative (-bina) and ablative\n(-ngunyi / -giyag). Specialised forms of these cases are found on inherently\nlocative expressions. An additional origin case (-nyunga) indicates spatial\norigin (as in 'the man from England') but also has a causal function.
\nFrom the point of view of indexing morphology, inflecting verbs (IVs) fall into\ntwo non-overlapping classes. Morphologically transitive verbs in their\nnon-reflexive/reciprocal form occur with a set of pronominal prefixes which\nalways index the most agentive argument (A) and in addition the patient-like (P)\nargument. With ditransitive predicates, R rather than P is usually indexed\nexcept for a marginal alternation which is possible only in the case that P is\nanimate.
\nThe order of prefixes is usually A followed by P, although in some cases\na portmanteau prefix is used. The 3rd person singular object (P) is not overtly\nexpressed except with a 3rd person singular subject.
\nIn one variety, nonsingular first person P prefixes have been neutralised, i.e.\nonly the first person singular prefix is used, and an enclitic pronominal\n(identical to the dative form) is used to disambiguate for number and the\ninclusive/exclusive distinction.
\nMorphologically intransitive verbs indicate their single argument (S) by\na pronominal prefix which in most cells of the paradigm (except 2nd person\nsingular) is identical to the A prefix. Thus, indexing more or less follows\na nominative-accusative pattern.
\nA final indexing phenomenon is the cross-referencing of dative, locative and\nallative arguments or adjuncts by an enclitic oblique (dative) pronoun. This\n\u201cclitic doubling\u201d is restricted to animate referents.
\nWord order is purely pragmatically conditioned and not employed to indicate\ngrammatical roles. Noun phrases can be freely omitted if understood from context\n(zero anaphora).
\nData in this database are from both elicited and naturalistic speech recorded\nduring multiple field trips undertaken by the author between 1993 and 2008.\nOccasional examples also come from field notes and texts recorded by Mark\nHarvey, Janet Bolt, and Michael Walsh, and Dorothea Hoffmann. Examples from\naudio- or video-recorded sessions are accompanied by the file name of the audio\nfile as archived (with annotations) in the Jaminjung DoBeS archive\n(www.mpi.nl/dobes) (rather than a page nr). Examples marked as \"field notes\" are\noverheard examples. Examples with no file name information come from transcripts\nwhich are not yet linked to archived audio files.
\nComments on conventions:
\nIn literal glosses of complex verbs in the \"comments\" field, the gloss of the\ninflecting verb (IV) is in capitals.
\nSince there is no infinitive form of the inflecting verb in Jaminjung and roots\nare not produced in isolation by speakers, the 3rd singular subject (+ 3rd sg\nobject for tr.verbs) past perfective form of inflecting verbs is provided\nthroughout, as this is one of the most frequent forms.
\nBorrowings (in verb meanings) and code switches (in examples) from Kriol, the\nEnglish-lexified Creole language spoken by most Jaminjung speakers, are marked\nby angular brackets (<...>).
", "latitude": -15.0833333333, "longitude": 130.5}, "name": "Jaminjung (Both Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru varieties)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [130.5, -15.0833333333]}, "id": "djam1255"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2408, "basic_codingframe_pk": 791, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "This is a Sino-Japanese verb. There is no native verb that corresponds to 'cook'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nucl1643-cook-1", "name": "ryoori-suru", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2160, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2160, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nucl1643-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 18, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 18, "source": null}}], "label": "ryoori-suru", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0NDQ0NDQztzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 18, "glottocode": "nucl1643", "family_pk": 9, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nucl1643", "name": "Japanese (standard)", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 35.6895, "longitude": 139.6917}, "name": "Japanese (standard)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [139.6917, 35.6895]}, "id": "nucl1643"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2494, "basic_codingframe_pk": 840, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kett1243-cook-1", "name": "\u0259n\u2077-q\u2075-t~a\u2070", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2244, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2244, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kett1243-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 19, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 19, "source": null}}], "label": "\u0259n\u2077-q\u2075-t~a\u2070", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDk5MDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 19, "glottocode": "kett1243", "family_pk": 12, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kett1243", "name": "Ket", "description": "#### General comment\n\nRE: Ommission of reflexive pronounsRE: Ommission of reflexive pronouns
\nKet verbs regularly omit the object NP verb externally and also omit the\nverb-external reflexive pronoun, but the verb-internal marker that indexes this\nvalent is never dropped for discourse reasons.
RE: Object omission (NP ommission)
\nKet regularly drops its verb-external object NP to background it in discourse.\nHowever, the verb-internal object marker remains regardless of discourse\nfunction.
Subject indexing is the same for all intransitive verbs. It varies as\nconditioned by verb status (a conjugation category).
", "latitude": 19.33, "longitude": -88.47}, "name": "Yucatec Maya (dialect of Quintana Roo, zona maya)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [271.53, 19.33]}, "id": "yuca1254"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2733, "basic_codingframe_pk": 895, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "icel1247-cook-1", "name": "elda", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2439, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2439, "jsondata": {}, "id": "icel1247-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 14, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 14, "source": null}}], "label": "elda", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 14, "glottocode": "icel1247", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "icel1247", "name": "Icelandic", "description": "#### General comment\n\nIcelandic is one of the most archaic modern Germanic languages. It has\nmaintained most of the morphological distinctions from Old Icelandic, most of\nthe paradigmatic distinctions and a huge proportion of the vocabulary. Some\nphonological changes have occurred, and some word order and constructional\npatterns have fallen into disuse. Icelanders of today can read Old Icelandic\nwithout problems.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nIcelandic has four cases, nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. These are\nmarked on nouns, pronouns, all adjectival elements and the definite article. The\ndefinite artice is cliticized on nouns, after inflectional morphemes, which in\nturn means that definite nouns in Icelandic have double case marking. Example:\n\"mann\" acc.sg., \"manni\" dat.sg, vs. \"manninn\" acc.sg.def and \"manninum\"\ndat.sg.def.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nThere is nominative agreement in Icelandic which means that if the subject is in\nthe nominative case, the verb agrees with the subject, if the object is in the\nnominative case, the verb agrees with the object. In essence this means that\nIcelandic does not have subject-verb agreement but nominative-verb agreement.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nIcelandic is a V2 language with a relatively fixed SVO word order in both main\nand subordinate clauses. It does not allow scrambling like German and\ntopicalizations are very rare in the spoken language. It has subject\u2013verb\ninversion, it has V1 structures, like the socalled \"Narrative Inversion\", it has\nobject shift, i.e. the rerversal of the order between an object and a sentence\nadverb, and it has \"stylistic fronting\", i.e. the preposing of a particle or an\nadverb in subjectless subordinate clauses (cf. \u00der\u00e1insson 2007).\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nJ\u00f3hanna Bar\u00f0dal is a native speaker linguist.", "markup_description": "Icelandic is one of the most archaic modern Germanic languages. It has\nmaintained most of the morphological distinctions from Old Icelandic, most of\nthe paradigmatic distinctions and a huge proportion of the vocabulary. Some\nphonological changes have occurred, and some word order and constructional\npatterns have fallen into disuse. Icelanders of today can read Old Icelandic\nwithout problems.
\nIcelandic has four cases, nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. These are\nmarked on nouns, pronouns, all adjectival elements and the definite article. The\ndefinite artice is cliticized on nouns, after inflectional morphemes, which in\nturn means that definite nouns in Icelandic have double case marking. Example:\n\"mann\" acc.sg., \"manni\" dat.sg, vs. \"manninn\" acc.sg.def and \"manninum\"\ndat.sg.def.
\nThere is nominative agreement in Icelandic which means that if the subject is in\nthe nominative case, the verb agrees with the subject, if the object is in the\nnominative case, the verb agrees with the object. In essence this means that\nIcelandic does not have subject-verb agreement but nominative-verb agreement.
\nIcelandic is a V2 language with a relatively fixed SVO word order in both main\nand subordinate clauses. It does not allow scrambling like German and\ntopicalizations are very rare in the spoken language. It has subject\u2013verb\ninversion, it has V1 structures, like the socalled \"Narrative Inversion\", it has\nobject shift, i.e. the rerversal of the order between an object and a sentence\nadverb, and it has \"stylistic fronting\", i.e. the preposing of a particle or an\nadverb in subjectless subordinate clauses (cf. \u00der\u00e1insson 2007).
\nJ\u00f3hanna Bar\u00f0dal is a native speaker linguist.
", "latitude": 65.0, "longitude": -17.0}, "name": "Icelandic"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-17.0, 65.0]}, "id": "icel1247"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2849, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1011, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Unknown", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249-cook-1", "name": "ryo:ri su-ru", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2540, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2540, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 12, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 12, "source": null}}], "label": "ryo:ri su-ru", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0NDQ0NDQztzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 12, "glottocode": "hokk1249", "family_pk": 9, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249", "name": "Hokkaido Japanese", "description": "#### General comment\n\nBrief description of the Hokkaido dialect of Japanese\n\nIn this database, the Hokkaido dialect is used to refer to the variety of\nJapanese spoken in the northern island Hokkaido and the islands around Hokkaido.\nAccording to Ono & Okuda (1999), Japanese speakers begin to settle on the\ncoastal area of southern Hokkaido from the late 16th century. Most of the\npopulation in those days came from the northern Tohoku region. From the mid 19th\ncentury to mid 20th century, intensive immigration to Hokkaido took place from\nall the part of Japan. However, in this case, too, the majority (around 40%)\ncame from Tohoku (Ono & Okuda 1999). Consequently, the Hokkaido Dialect has\ninherited a considerable number of features from the northern Tohoku dialects.\n\nThe Hokkaido dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting\nthis dialect appear in the modern Japanese literature. The most famous example\nis the conversational part of Kanikosen 'The Crab Canning Ship' written by\nTakiji Kobayashi in 1929.\n\nThe population of Hokkaido is 5,502,944 (June 30th, 2011). However, the exact\nnumber of speakers of the Hokkaido dialect is unknown.\n\nThe Hokkaido dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese\ndialects and it is subdivided into the coastal variety and the inland variety.\nThe coastal variety preserves lots of characteristics of the Tohoku dialects,\nsuch as the imperative use of the conditional inflection, neutralization of /i/\nand /e/, intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/, spotaneous voice morphology with\n/rasar/, and so on. Certain inland dialects are reported to preserve some degree\nof dialectal features of their region of origin (Suga 2011). For example, the\ndialect spoken in Hombetsu (Nakagawa district, Tokachi) has the copula ja/zja,\nfound in the Tokushima dialect spoken in the Shikoku island. According to\nIshigaki (1976), the inland variety underwent influence from the coastal\nvariety, even though the origin of the population is not the same as that of the\ncoastal variety. The most important grammatical feature of the Hokkaido dialect\nfor this database is the existence of anticausativization with /rasar/\nsuffixation. This grammatical phenomenon is found in both varieties.\n\nThe most notable feature of this dialect is the voice system. Standard Japanese\nhas three productive voice suffixes, i.e., passive, potential and causative. On\nthe other hand, the Hokkaido dialect has four productive voice suffixes: passive\n/rare/ (traditionally, /rae/), potential /e/ or /rare/ (traditionally, /-ni\ni:/), causative /sase/ (traditionally, /rase/ or /rahe/) and spontaneous\n/rasar/. The spontaneous suffix /rasar/ is used as a marker for\nanticausativization. For the details of anticausativization in the Hokkaido\ndialect, see Sasaki & Yamazaki (2006).\n\nDue to the existence of productive antucausative morphology, the Hokkaido\ndialect displays different characteristics of the transitivity alternation from\nthat of Standard Japanese. Concerning transitivization, both Standard Japanese\nand the Hokkaido dialect have lexical and morphological causativization. For\nexample, ak-u 'open.INTR-NPST' -- ake-ru 'open.TR-NPST' and hasir-u 'run-NPST'\n-- hasir-ase-ru 'run-CAUS-NPST'. On the other hand, concerning\nintransitivization, they show difference. Standard Japanese has only lexical\nanticausativization, such as or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST'.\nThe Hokkaido dialect has both lexical and morphological anticausativization,\ne.g., or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST' and nur-u 'paint-NPST' --\nnur-asar-u 'paint-SP-NPST (become painted)'.\n\nThe data in this database is obtained from a relatively younger speaker in his\n30s, whose speech has lost some traditional dialectal features such as\nneutralization of /i/ and /e/ and intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/. However,\nanticausativization remains active in his speech.", "markup_description": "Brief description of the Hokkaido dialect of Japanese
\nIn this database, the Hokkaido dialect is used to refer to the variety of\nJapanese spoken in the northern island Hokkaido and the islands around Hokkaido.\nAccording to Ono & Okuda (1999), Japanese speakers begin to settle on the\ncoastal area of southern Hokkaido from the late 16th century. Most of the\npopulation in those days came from the northern Tohoku region. From the mid 19th\ncentury to mid 20th century, intensive immigration to Hokkaido took place from\nall the part of Japan. However, in this case, too, the majority (around 40%)\ncame from Tohoku (Ono & Okuda 1999). Consequently, the Hokkaido Dialect has\ninherited a considerable number of features from the northern Tohoku dialects.
\nThe Hokkaido dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting\nthis dialect appear in the modern Japanese literature. The most famous example\nis the conversational part of Kanikosen 'The Crab Canning Ship' written by\nTakiji Kobayashi in 1929.
\nThe population of Hokkaido is 5,502,944 (June 30th, 2011). However, the exact\nnumber of speakers of the Hokkaido dialect is unknown.
\nThe Hokkaido dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese\ndialects and it is subdivided into the coastal variety and the inland variety.\nThe coastal variety preserves lots of characteristics of the Tohoku dialects,\nsuch as the imperative use of the conditional inflection, neutralization of /i/\nand /e/, intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/, spotaneous voice morphology with\n/rasar/, and so on. Certain inland dialects are reported to preserve some degree\nof dialectal features of their region of origin (Suga 2011). For example, the\ndialect spoken in Hombetsu (Nakagawa district, Tokachi) has the copula ja/zja,\nfound in the Tokushima dialect spoken in the Shikoku island. According to\nIshigaki (1976), the inland variety underwent influence from the coastal\nvariety, even though the origin of the population is not the same as that of the\ncoastal variety. The most important grammatical feature of the Hokkaido dialect\nfor this database is the existence of anticausativization with /rasar/\nsuffixation. This grammatical phenomenon is found in both varieties.
\nThe most notable feature of this dialect is the voice system. Standard Japanese\nhas three productive voice suffixes, i.e., passive, potential and causative. On\nthe other hand, the Hokkaido dialect has four productive voice suffixes: passive\n/rare/ (traditionally, /rae/), potential /e/ or /rare/ (traditionally, /-ni\ni:/), causative /sase/ (traditionally, /rase/ or /rahe/) and spontaneous\n/rasar/. The spontaneous suffix /rasar/ is used as a marker for\nanticausativization. For the details of anticausativization in the Hokkaido\ndialect, see Sasaki & Yamazaki (2006).
\nDue to the existence of productive antucausative morphology, the Hokkaido\ndialect displays different characteristics of the transitivity alternation from\nthat of Standard Japanese. Concerning transitivization, both Standard Japanese\nand the Hokkaido dialect have lexical and morphological causativization. For\nexample, ak-u 'open.INTR-NPST' -- ake-ru 'open.TR-NPST' and hasir-u 'run-NPST'\n-- hasir-ase-ru 'run-CAUS-NPST'. On the other hand, concerning\nintransitivization, they show difference. Standard Japanese has only lexical\nanticausativization, such as or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST'.\nThe Hokkaido dialect has both lexical and morphological anticausativization,\ne.g., or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST' and nur-u 'paint-NPST' --\nnur-asar-u 'paint-SP-NPST (become painted)'.
\nThe data in this database is obtained from a relatively younger speaker in his\n30s, whose speech has lost some traditional dialectal features such as\nneutralization of /i/ and /e/ and intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/. However,\nanticausativization remains active in his speech.
", "latitude": 43.691708, "longitude": 142.866211}, "name": "Hokkaido Japanese"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [142.866211, 43.691708]}, "id": "hokk1249"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2975, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1065, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "This verb is a deponent direct causative.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "ainu1240-cook-1", "name": "suw-e", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2630, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2630, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ainu1240-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 1, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 1, "source": null}}, {"pk": 2976, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1065, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "This verb is a deponent direct causative.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "ainu1240-cook-2", "name": "s\u00fa-pa", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2630, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2630, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ainu1240-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 1, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 1, "source": null}}], "label": "suw-e, s\u00fa-pa", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwMDBERDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 1, "glottocode": "ainu1240", "family_pk": 1, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ainu1240", "name": "Ainu (Southern Hokkaido)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nA genetic isolate, Ainu shows considerable dialectal variation: Hokkaido\n(Northeastern and Southwestern), Sakhalin, and Kurile groups. Ainu is\nagglutinating, polysynthetic and incorporating, with SV/AOV constituent order.\nIt is predominantly head-marking. Personal pronouns in the subject (A/S) and\nobject (O) position are often omitted: Ainu is a so-called pro-drop language but\nverbal cross-referencing markers are obligatory.\n\nSome verbs employ different stems for singular and plural. In the case of\nintransitive verbs, plurality refers to the number of S referents, while in the\ncase of transitive verbs plurality refers to the number of O or patientive\nA referents.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nArguments do not inflect for case in Ainu: A and O are distinguished by their\nrelative position in clause structure and by verbal cross-referencing markers.\n\nObliques are marked by postpositions: locative ta , allative un (for inanimatre\nGoal) and dative e-un <head-ALL> (for animate Goal), ablative wa , instrumental\nani, comitative tura/turano, traversal peka (\u2018over\u2019), mutative ne (\u2018as\u2019; <ne\nCOP). Most case postpositions not only clearly originate in verbs but are still\nin a very early stage of the grammaticalization as they can often occur without\nrespective nouns, as in (a).\n\na. itanki huraye hine (itanki) ani i=ko-i-puniA genetic isolate, Ainu shows considerable dialectal variation: Hokkaido\n(Northeastern and Southwestern), Sakhalin, and Kurile groups. Ainu is\nagglutinating, polysynthetic and incorporating, with SV/AOV constituent order.\nIt is predominantly head-marking. Personal pronouns in the subject (A/S) and\nobject (O) position are often omitted: Ainu is a so-called pro-drop language but\nverbal cross-referencing markers are obligatory.
\nSome verbs employ different stems for singular and plural. In the case of\nintransitive verbs, plurality refers to the number of S referents, while in the\ncase of transitive verbs plurality refers to the number of O or patientive\nA referents.
\nArguments do not inflect for case in Ainu: A and O are distinguished by their\nrelative position in clause structure and by verbal cross-referencing markers.
\nObliques are marked by postpositions: locative ta , allative un (for inanimatre\nGoal) and dative e-un <head-ALL> (for animate Goal), ablative wa , instrumental\nani, comitative tura/turano, traversal peka (\u2018over\u2019), mutative ne (\u2018as\u2019; <ne\nCOP). Most case postpositions not only clearly originate in verbs but are still\nin a very early stage of the grammaticalization as they can often occur without\nrespective nouns, as in (a).
\na. itanki huraye hine (itanki) ani i=ko-i-puni
\nbowl wash and bowl INST INDF.O=to.APPL-APASS-raise
\n\u2018She washed a bowl and with (that bowl) he served me food.\u2019 Ani (INST) ( < ani 'hold sth') may also be interpreted as lit. \u2018holding (that bowl)' - zero-anaphora. However, if ani were still a verb here we would need a coordinating conjunction after ani, so it really has an intermediate status between a verb and postposition.
The system of grammatical relations in Ainu shows mixed alignment. There is\na tripartite alignment (distinct marking for S, A, and O) in 1PL pronominal\nverbal marking, viz. the prefix ci= marks A, the suffix =as S, and un= O for the\nfirst person exclusive, and a= A, =an S, and i= O for indefinite person.\nIndefinite is not only used to refer to the indefinite speaker or addressee, but\nalso as the first person plural inclusive, second person singular/plural\nhonorific, and logophoric (person of the protagonist). The latter is common in\nfolktales because they have the structure of reported discourse with the whole\nstory being a quote; for convenience the logophoric is translated as \u2018I\u2019 but is\nglossed as IND. There are elements of a neutral system in the second and third\nperson pronominal verbal marking, viz. A, S, and O are marked by e= in 2SG and\nby eci= in 2PL, and the third person is always zero-marked; independent personal\npronouns are the same for A, S, and O in all persons. There is also one feature\nof a nominative/accusative system: A=S, and O are distinct in the 1SG pronominal\nverbal marking, viz. 1SG ku= marks A, S, and en= O
\nIn pronominal verbal marking of transitive verbs, A affixes are, in most cases,\nplaced before O markers. However, when it comes to the interaction of first and\nsecond person participants, person marking on verbs is not always analyzable as\nARGa-ARGo-VERB, and it is, indeed, subject to considerable dialectal variation.
\nThe A set of prefixes is also employed in the inalienable possessive\nconstruction, where they are attached to the head noun (possessee) to mark the\nperson and number of the possessor. The head noun is additionally marked with\nthe allomorphic possessive suffixes -V or -(V)hV which copy a root-final vowel\nonce or twice with the epenthetic /h/ being inserted, viz. -ha/-hu/-ho/-he/-hi\nfor vowel-final roots, as in ku=sapa-ha (1SG.A=head-POSS) \u2018my head\u2019, and\n-a(ha)/-u(hu)/-o(ho)/-e(he)/-i(hi) for consonant-final roots, as in ci=setur-u\nor ci=setur-uhu (1PL.(EXC).A=back-POSS) \u2018our backs\u2019 . Relational nouns as heads\ndiffer from common nouns in that they employ the O set of prefixes to mark the\nperson and number of the possessor, viz. en=sam (1SG.O=near) \u2018near me\u2019.\nPossessive suffixes are attached to relational nouns only if the possessor is\n3SG/PL (zero-marked), viz. \u00d8=sam-a (3.O=near-POSS) \u2018near him/her/it\u2019.
\nAlienable possession is encoded by the relative clause-based periphrastic\nconstruction with the verb kor \u2018have sth/sb\u2019 as the predicate and the possessor\nas the subject; the head noun (possessee) is left unmarked: ku=\u00d8=kor kamuy\n[1SG.\u0410=3.O=have god] \u2018my god\u2019 (lit. \u2018the god (that) I have\u2019).
\nSV/AOV constituent order.
\nIn double object construction, generally A-R-T-V, but there are also other ordering options, they are pragmatically motivated.
Attributives are prepositive.
\nSubordinate clauses always precede main clauses.
\nIs based on previous documentation of Ainu which had been undertaken by the\ncontributor or other researchers of Ainu. Data from existing Ainu dictionaries\nand published texts have been used extensively, as well as those that are in the\nprocess of preparation for a publication (see forthcoming). For most examples,\nthere exist respective audio materials.
\nThe contributor, Anna Bugaeva, has been working on Ainu since 1997 after her\ngraduation from Department of Japanese (St. Petersburg University) in 1996. She\nwas supervised by an Ainu specialist Tomomi Satoo in her PhD (obtained in 2004\nfrom Hokkaido University) and by an Ainu specialist Hiroshi Nakagawa in her two\npost-docs (Chiba University). Currently, she works as an assistant professor at\nWaseda Institute for Advanced Study, Waseda University.
", "latitude": 43.0, "longitude": 143.0}, "name": "Ainu (Southern Hokkaido)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [143.0, 43.0]}, "id": "ainu1240"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 3079, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1083, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "There is no counterpart. They have ni-ru 'boil' and jag-u 'grill'. But they do not have a general verb for cooking. The verbal noun plus light verb rjo:ri su-ru 'cook' is regarded as a Standard Japanese expression, not an expression in this dialect, by my consultants.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526-cook-1", "name": "no verbal counterpart", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2712, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2712, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526-cook", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 24, "parameter_pk": 39, "contribution_pk": 24, "source": null}}], "label": "no verbal counterpart", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0NDQ0NDQztzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 24, "glottocode": "east2526", "family_pk": 9, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526", "name": "Mitsukaido Japanese", "description": "#### General comment\n\nBrief description of the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese\n\nThe Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese is spoken in the area around the former\nMitsukaido city (now incorporated into Joso city). This area is 50km north to\nTokyo, the capital of Japan. In spite of its close location to the economic and\ncultural center of Japan, the dialect spoken in this area displays phonological\nand morphosyntactic characteristics different from Standard Japanese.\n\nThis dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese dialect.\nAs mentioned below, this dialect shows Tohoku-like characteristics and\nKanto-like characteristics simultaneously in both phonology and morphosyntax.\nThis Janus-faced characteristic is a reflection of the geographical situation,\ni.e., the southern edge of Tohoku dialects.\n\nThe population of Joso city is 64,880 (August 16th, 2011). Due to its low inflow\nof population, most of the population can be regarded as a speaker of the\nMitsukaido dialect. The old generation preserves the classic type of grammatical\ntraits, while the speech of the younger generation undergoes influence from\nStandard Japanese. Sasaki (2011) illustrates that the loss of dialectal features\nin younger generation is overwhelming but not complete.\n\nThis dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting the\ngrammatical traits of this dialect are found in the modern Japanese literature.\nThe most well-known case is the conversational part of the novel Tsuchi 'The\nEarth' written by Takashi Nagatsuka in 1910.\n\nThe data used in this article is obtained from speakers aged over 80 and these\ndata reflect traditional features.\n\nThe phonemic inventory of this dialect is the same as that of Standard Japanese.\nThis dialect has five vowel phonemes /i, e, a, o, u/ and 11 consonant phonemes\n/p, t, k, b, d, g, n, m, r, w, j/. The dialect lacks lexical accent.\n\nDespite of its phonemic affinity with Standard Japanese, the surface phonetic\nrealization of cognate words is different from that of Standard Japanese because\nof the phonological processes not found in Standard Japanese: 'breath' is [iki]\nin SJ and [egi] in MD; 'square floor cushion' is [dzabutoN] in SJ and [dzaptoN]\nin MD. Most of the phonological processes responsible for the surface difference\nare those also found in Tohoku dialects, for example, intervocalic voicing of\nstops, regressive devoicing of /z/ and /b/, lowering of /i/ without onset, and\nso on. The phonological processes interact in a complex manner. Some\ninteractions exhibit multiple opaque interactions. For the details of the\ninteraction of phonological processes, see Sasaki (2008a). In order to avoid\nconfusion, I adopt systematic allophones, i.e., the output of the phonological\nprocesses, as notation in this database ([ng] stands for velar nasal).\n\nConcerning the morphology relating to valency alternation, both affinity and\ndifference are found between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese. The\nvoice system of the Mitsukaido dialect is almost the same as that of Standard\nJapanese, i.e., both the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese have\nproductive passive, causative and potential formation, but lack productive\nanticausativization widely attested in the Tohoku dialects, though the\nphonological shape of the morphemes is not completely the same: the passive and\nthe potential suffixes are identical to those of Standard Japanese, namely\npassive /rare/ and potential /e/ and /rare/, while the causative suffix is\n/sase/ in Standard Japanese but /rase/ in the Mitsukaido dialect.\n\nThe difference between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese is most\nprominent with respect to the case system. The case alignment of subject and\ndirect object in the Mitsukaido dialect is accusative type, as in Standard\nJapanese. However, the morphological shapes of nominative and accusative are\ndifferent. Nominative is expressed by zero-marking (in Standard Japanese, the\ncase particle -ga is used). Accusative case form is different depending on the\nanimacy of the host nominal: inanimate direct objects are zero-marked while\nanimate direct objects are case marked with the particle -godo. This type of\nunmarked nominative and marked accusative system is widely attested in Tohoku\ndialects (some of them employ -godo as an accusative marker). Due to having two\ntypes of accusative case marking, the Mitsukaido dialect has an uncoded valency\nalternation which is not found in Standard Japanese, namely double accusative\npossessor ascension and (unproductive) double accusative type dative\nalternation. For the details of double accusative constructions, see Sasaki\n(2002).\n\nAnother feature distinguishing the Mitsukaido dialect case system from that of\nStandard Japanese is the degree of elaboratedness of the oblique case particles.\nThe Mitsukaido dialect is more elaborated than Standard Japanese. The semantic\nsphere of the Standard Japanese dative/locative -ni is divided among four case\nparticles in the Mitsukaido dialect, i.e., locative -ni, dative -nge/-sa (-nge\nis used for animate goal and -sa is used for inanimate goal), and experiencer\ncase -ngani. The main usage of the experiencer case particle -ngani is a marker\nfor an experiencer oblique subject. The oblique case specific to experiencer is\nconsidered to be typologically rare. See Sasaki (2004) and Sasaki (2008b) for\ndetails.\n\nThe elaboratedness of the adnominal case particles is also characteristic to\nthis dialect. The Mitsukaido dialect has three adnominal case particles:\npossessive -nga, genitive -no, and adnominal locative -na. For details on the\nusage of these case particles, see Sasaki (1997) and Sasaki & Caluianu (1997).\n\n * Sasaki, Kan (1997) Possessive, Genitive and Adnominal Locative in the Mitsukaido Dialect. In: Tooru Hayashi & Peri Bhaskararao (eds.), Studies in Possessive Expressions. 117-141. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.\n * Sasaki, Kan and Daniela Caluianu (1997) Mitsukaidoo hoogen no rentaishuushoku kaku [Adnominal case particles in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese]. Gengo Kenkyu 111. 59-83.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2002) The double accusative possessor ascension construction in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese. In: Tasaku Tsunoda (ed.), Basic Materials in Minority Languages 2002. (ELPR Publications Series B003) 91-114.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2004) Mitsukaidoo Hoogen ni okeru Kaku to Bunpookankei [Case and Grammatical Relations in the Mitsukaido Dialect of Japanese]. Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2008a) Hardening alternation in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese. Gengo Kenkyu 134. 85-117.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2008b) What can the Mitsukaido dialect case system tell about syntactic theory? Journal of General Linguistics 11. 53-84\n * Sasaki, Kan (2011) Mitsukaidoo hoogen: hyoojungo ni chikai noni tooi hoogen [The Mitsukaido dialect: a dialect that is both close to and far from Standard Japanese]. In: Megumi Kurebito (ed.), Nihon no Kikigengo [Endangered Languages in Japan]. 101-138. Sapporo: Hokkaido University Press.", "markup_description": "Brief description of the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese
\nThe Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese is spoken in the area around the former\nMitsukaido city (now incorporated into Joso city). This area is 50km north to\nTokyo, the capital of Japan. In spite of its close location to the economic and\ncultural center of Japan, the dialect spoken in this area displays phonological\nand morphosyntactic characteristics different from Standard Japanese.
\nThis dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese dialect.\nAs mentioned below, this dialect shows Tohoku-like characteristics and\nKanto-like characteristics simultaneously in both phonology and morphosyntax.\nThis Janus-faced characteristic is a reflection of the geographical situation,\ni.e., the southern edge of Tohoku dialects.
\nThe population of Joso city is 64,880 (August 16th, 2011). Due to its low inflow\nof population, most of the population can be regarded as a speaker of the\nMitsukaido dialect. The old generation preserves the classic type of grammatical\ntraits, while the speech of the younger generation undergoes influence from\nStandard Japanese. Sasaki (2011) illustrates that the loss of dialectal features\nin younger generation is overwhelming but not complete.
\nThis dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting the\ngrammatical traits of this dialect are found in the modern Japanese literature.\nThe most well-known case is the conversational part of the novel Tsuchi 'The\nEarth' written by Takashi Nagatsuka in 1910.
\nThe data used in this article is obtained from speakers aged over 80 and these\ndata reflect traditional features.
\nThe phonemic inventory of this dialect is the same as that of Standard Japanese.\nThis dialect has five vowel phonemes /i, e, a, o, u/ and 11 consonant phonemes\n/p, t, k, b, d, g, n, m, r, w, j/. The dialect lacks lexical accent.
\nDespite of its phonemic affinity with Standard Japanese, the surface phonetic\nrealization of cognate words is different from that of Standard Japanese because\nof the phonological processes not found in Standard Japanese: 'breath' is [iki]\nin SJ and [egi] in MD; 'square floor cushion' is [dzabutoN] in SJ and [dzaptoN]\nin MD. Most of the phonological processes responsible for the surface difference\nare those also found in Tohoku dialects, for example, intervocalic voicing of\nstops, regressive devoicing of /z/ and /b/, lowering of /i/ without onset, and\nso on. The phonological processes interact in a complex manner. Some\ninteractions exhibit multiple opaque interactions. For the details of the\ninteraction of phonological processes, see Sasaki (2008a). In order to avoid\nconfusion, I adopt systematic allophones, i.e., the output of the phonological\nprocesses, as notation in this database ([ng] stands for velar nasal).
\nConcerning the morphology relating to valency alternation, both affinity and\ndifference are found between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese. The\nvoice system of the Mitsukaido dialect is almost the same as that of Standard\nJapanese, i.e., both the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese have\nproductive passive, causative and potential formation, but lack productive\nanticausativization widely attested in the Tohoku dialects, though the\nphonological shape of the morphemes is not completely the same: the passive and\nthe potential suffixes are identical to those of Standard Japanese, namely\npassive /rare/ and potential /e/ and /rare/, while the causative suffix is\n/sase/ in Standard Japanese but /rase/ in the Mitsukaido dialect.
\nThe difference between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese is most\nprominent with respect to the case system. The case alignment of subject and\ndirect object in the Mitsukaido dialect is accusative type, as in Standard\nJapanese. However, the morphological shapes of nominative and accusative are\ndifferent. Nominative is expressed by zero-marking (in Standard Japanese, the\ncase particle -ga is used). Accusative case form is different depending on the\nanimacy of the host nominal: inanimate direct objects are zero-marked while\nanimate direct objects are case marked with the particle -godo. This type of\nunmarked nominative and marked accusative system is widely attested in Tohoku\ndialects (some of them employ -godo as an accusative marker). Due to having two\ntypes of accusative case marking, the Mitsukaido dialect has an uncoded valency\nalternation which is not found in Standard Japanese, namely double accusative\npossessor ascension and (unproductive) double accusative type dative\nalternation. For the details of double accusative constructions, see Sasaki\n(2002).
\nAnother feature distinguishing the Mitsukaido dialect case system from that of\nStandard Japanese is the degree of elaboratedness of the oblique case particles.\nThe Mitsukaido dialect is more elaborated than Standard Japanese. The semantic\nsphere of the Standard Japanese dative/locative -ni is divided among four case\nparticles in the Mitsukaido dialect, i.e., locative -ni, dative -nge/-sa (-nge\nis used for animate goal and -sa is used for inanimate goal), and experiencer\ncase -ngani. The main usage of the experiencer case particle -ngani is a marker\nfor an experiencer oblique subject. The oblique case specific to experiencer is\nconsidered to be typologically rare. See Sasaki (2004) and Sasaki (2008b) for\ndetails.
\nThe elaboratedness of the adnominal case particles is also characteristic to\nthis dialect. The Mitsukaido dialect has three adnominal case particles:\npossessive -nga, genitive -no, and adnominal locative -na. For details on the\nusage of these case particles, see Sasaki (1997) and Sasaki & Caluianu (1997).
\n