Jaminjung belongs to the small Jaminjungan (or Western Mirndi) subgroup of the\ngeographically discontinuous Mirndi family, one of the non-Pama-Nyungan families\nof northern Australia. The name Jaminjung is used here for two named varieties,\nJaminjung and Ngaliwurru, which are mutually intelligible and exhibit mainly\nlexical differences. The traditional country of Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru\nspeakers is located north and south of the Victoria River around the present-day\ntownship of Timber Creek in the Northern Territory. Jaminjung is severely\nendangered in that it is no longer acquired by children; only a few dozen\nelderly speakers are alive today.
\nA pervasive feature of Jaminjung lexicon and grammar, which proves to be highly\nrelevant for the discussion of verb classes and alternations, is a division of\nthe \u201cverbal\u201d lexicon into two distinct parts of speech. This is an areal\nphenomenon found in a number of unrelated languages in Northern Australia.
\nInflecting verbs (IVs), i.e. those taking obligatory pronominal prefixes and\ntense and mood marking, form a closed class with only about 35 members (with\nsome variation depending on the dialect affiliation and also the age of\nindividual speakers).
\nUninflecting verbs (UVs; also known as \"coverbs\" or \"preverbs\" in the\nliterature) can be distinguished from IVs by the fact that they cannot take\nverbal inflections. They are also distinguishable from nominals in that they do\nnot co-occur with determiners such as demonstratives. UVs form an open class\nwhich can be expanded by loan words.
\nPredicates in Jaminjung thus can be simple (an IV on its own) or complex (a\ncombination of an IV and one or two UVs). In addition, translation equivalents\nof verbs can be collocations involving nominals, e.g. expressions with a body\npart for feelings/pain, or expressions like gugu gardbany 'rain falls' = 'to\nrain'.
\nMost valency alternations in Jaminjung are only relevant for complex predicates.\nA valency change in this type of alternation is achieved by combining the same\nUV with different IVs resulting e.g. in inchoative vs. causative complex\npredicates. In this database, they are therefore marked as \"UV\" preceding the\nalternation name, and are considered coded alternations even though they are not\ncoded by a dedicated valency-changing morphological marker. Note also that the\nsubstitution of different IVs with the same UV can also result in other semantic\ndifferences, e.g. in lexical aspect, deictic direction of motion, instrument\nused for contact, or other more subtle differences. In this database only\nvalency-changing alternations are considered.
\nJaminjung has a rich system of cases which formally are clitics occurring once\nor more than once in a phrase. Case marking of core arguments follows an\nergative-absolutive pattern, with optional ergativity. As a general rule, the\ncase frame used with a particular predicate, whether simple or complex, follows\nfrom the morphological transitivity of the inflecting verb (IV). That is,\na single absolutive argument occurs with intransitive IVs, and an\nergative-absolutive case frame (or double absolutive if ergative marking is\nomitted) is used with transitive IVs. Since the absolutive is unmarked, it is\nnot glossed in examples. The ergative has the form -ni ~ -di.
\nErgative marking of A arguments is optional in Jaminjung; the presence vs.\nabsence of ergative marking depends on a variety of factors including the\nsemantics of the predicate, animacy and degree of agentivity of A, and lexical\nand grammatical aspect. Therefore, presence vs. absence of ergative marking was\nnot considered an alternation for the purposes of this database.
\nRegular double absolutive marking used for both A and P of some bivalent atelic\npredicates (with intransitive IV), i.e. the ergative is not possible on As in\nthis case.
\nDouble absolutive marking is also used for both NP objects of a semantically\ntrivalent predicate.
\nDative case ( -gu ~ -wu) marks addressees or beneficiaries and also has\na purposive function; in addition a specialised purposive case (-ngurlung) is\nused by some speakers, and the possessive case -gina (usually appearing in\nadnominal function) can have a purposive use as well.
\nSpatial cases are locative (-gi ~ -g ~ -ni), allative (-bina) and ablative\n(-ngunyi / -giyag). Specialised forms of these cases are found on inherently\nlocative expressions. An additional origin case (-nyunga) indicates spatial\norigin (as in 'the man from England') but also has a causal function.
\nFrom the point of view of indexing morphology, inflecting verbs (IVs) fall into\ntwo non-overlapping classes. Morphologically transitive verbs in their\nnon-reflexive/reciprocal form occur with a set of pronominal prefixes which\nalways index the most agentive argument (A) and in addition the patient-like (P)\nargument. With ditransitive predicates, R rather than P is usually indexed\nexcept for a marginal alternation which is possible only in the case that P is\nanimate.
\nThe order of prefixes is usually A followed by P, although in some cases\na portmanteau prefix is used. The 3rd person singular object (P) is not overtly\nexpressed except with a 3rd person singular subject.
\nIn one variety, nonsingular first person P prefixes have been neutralised, i.e.\nonly the first person singular prefix is used, and an enclitic pronominal\n(identical to the dative form) is used to disambiguate for number and the\ninclusive/exclusive distinction.
\nMorphologically intransitive verbs indicate their single argument (S) by\na pronominal prefix which in most cells of the paradigm (except 2nd person\nsingular) is identical to the A prefix. Thus, indexing more or less follows\na nominative-accusative pattern.
\nA final indexing phenomenon is the cross-referencing of dative, locative and\nallative arguments or adjuncts by an enclitic oblique (dative) pronoun. This\n\u201cclitic doubling\u201d is restricted to animate referents.
\nWord order is purely pragmatically conditioned and not employed to indicate\ngrammatical roles. Noun phrases can be freely omitted if understood from context\n(zero anaphora).
\nData in this database are from both elicited and naturalistic speech recorded\nduring multiple field trips undertaken by the author between 1993 and 2008.\nOccasional examples also come from field notes and texts recorded by Mark\nHarvey, Janet Bolt, and Michael Walsh, and Dorothea Hoffmann. Examples from\naudio- or video-recorded sessions are accompanied by the file name of the audio\nfile as archived (with annotations) in the Jaminjung DoBeS archive\n(www.mpi.nl/dobes) (rather than a page nr). Examples marked as \"field notes\" are\noverheard examples. Examples with no file name information come from transcripts\nwhich are not yet linked to archived audio files.
\nComments on conventions:
\nIn literal glosses of complex verbs in the \"comments\" field, the gloss of the\ninflecting verb (IV) is in capitals.
\nSince there is no infinitive form of the inflecting verb in Jaminjung and roots\nare not produced in isolation by speakers, the 3rd singular subject (+ 3rd sg\nobject for tr.verbs) past perfective form of inflecting verbs is provided\nthroughout, as this is one of the most frequent forms.
\nBorrowings (in verb meanings) and code switches (in examples) from Kriol, the\nEnglish-lexified Creole language spoken by most Jaminjung speakers, are marked\nby angular brackets (<...>).
", "latitude": -15.0833333333, "longitude": 130.5}, "name": "Jaminjung (Both Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru varieties)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [130.5, -15.0833333333]}, "id": "djam1255"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2649, "basic_codingframe_pk": 856, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "Extraversive incorporative to ok'om (\u00f3ol). It is ambiguous between an extraversive (\"sadden\"/\"traurig stimmen\") and a causative (\"mourn\"/\"betrauern\") reading.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "yuca1254-be-sad-about-1", "name": "ok'om-\u00f3olt", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2364, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2364, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yuca1254-be-sad-about", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 35, "parameter_pk": 19, "contribution_pk": 35, "source": null}}], "label": "ok'om-\u00f3olt", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNMiAzNiBMMzggMzYgTDIwIDUgTDIgMzYiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDk5MDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 35, "glottocode": "yuca1254", "family_pk": 22, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yuca1254", "name": "Yucatec Maya (dialect of Quintana Roo, zona maya)", "description": "#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nSubject indexing is the same for all intransitive verbs. It varies as\nconditioned by verb status (a conjugation category).", "markup_description": "Subject indexing is the same for all intransitive verbs. It varies as\nconditioned by verb status (a conjugation category).
", "latitude": 19.33, "longitude": -88.47}, "name": "Yucatec Maya (dialect of Quintana Roo, zona maya)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [271.53, 19.33]}, "id": "yuca1254"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2863, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1011, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249-be-sad-about-1", "name": "kanasim-u", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2554, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2554, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249-be-sad-about", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 12, "parameter_pk": 19, "contribution_pk": 12, "source": null}}], "label": "kanasim-u", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0NDQ0NDQztzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 12, "glottocode": "hokk1249", "family_pk": 9, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249", "name": "Hokkaido Japanese", "description": "#### General comment\n\nBrief description of the Hokkaido dialect of Japanese\n\nIn this database, the Hokkaido dialect is used to refer to the variety of\nJapanese spoken in the northern island Hokkaido and the islands around Hokkaido.\nAccording to Ono & Okuda (1999), Japanese speakers begin to settle on the\ncoastal area of southern Hokkaido from the late 16th century. Most of the\npopulation in those days came from the northern Tohoku region. From the mid 19th\ncentury to mid 20th century, intensive immigration to Hokkaido took place from\nall the part of Japan. However, in this case, too, the majority (around 40%)\ncame from Tohoku (Ono & Okuda 1999). Consequently, the Hokkaido Dialect has\ninherited a considerable number of features from the northern Tohoku dialects.\n\nThe Hokkaido dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting\nthis dialect appear in the modern Japanese literature. The most famous example\nis the conversational part of Kanikosen 'The Crab Canning Ship' written by\nTakiji Kobayashi in 1929.\n\nThe population of Hokkaido is 5,502,944 (June 30th, 2011). However, the exact\nnumber of speakers of the Hokkaido dialect is unknown.\n\nThe Hokkaido dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese\ndialects and it is subdivided into the coastal variety and the inland variety.\nThe coastal variety preserves lots of characteristics of the Tohoku dialects,\nsuch as the imperative use of the conditional inflection, neutralization of /i/\nand /e/, intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/, spotaneous voice morphology with\n/rasar/, and so on. Certain inland dialects are reported to preserve some degree\nof dialectal features of their region of origin (Suga 2011). For example, the\ndialect spoken in Hombetsu (Nakagawa district, Tokachi) has the copula ja/zja,\nfound in the Tokushima dialect spoken in the Shikoku island. According to\nIshigaki (1976), the inland variety underwent influence from the coastal\nvariety, even though the origin of the population is not the same as that of the\ncoastal variety. The most important grammatical feature of the Hokkaido dialect\nfor this database is the existence of anticausativization with /rasar/\nsuffixation. This grammatical phenomenon is found in both varieties.\n\nThe most notable feature of this dialect is the voice system. Standard Japanese\nhas three productive voice suffixes, i.e., passive, potential and causative. On\nthe other hand, the Hokkaido dialect has four productive voice suffixes: passive\n/rare/ (traditionally, /rae/), potential /e/ or /rare/ (traditionally, /-ni\ni:/), causative /sase/ (traditionally, /rase/ or /rahe/) and spontaneous\n/rasar/. The spontaneous suffix /rasar/ is used as a marker for\nanticausativization. For the details of anticausativization in the Hokkaido\ndialect, see Sasaki & Yamazaki (2006).\n\nDue to the existence of productive antucausative morphology, the Hokkaido\ndialect displays different characteristics of the transitivity alternation from\nthat of Standard Japanese. Concerning transitivization, both Standard Japanese\nand the Hokkaido dialect have lexical and morphological causativization. For\nexample, ak-u 'open.INTR-NPST' -- ake-ru 'open.TR-NPST' and hasir-u 'run-NPST'\n-- hasir-ase-ru 'run-CAUS-NPST'. On the other hand, concerning\nintransitivization, they show difference. Standard Japanese has only lexical\nanticausativization, such as or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST'.\nThe Hokkaido dialect has both lexical and morphological anticausativization,\ne.g., or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST' and nur-u 'paint-NPST' --\nnur-asar-u 'paint-SP-NPST (become painted)'.\n\nThe data in this database is obtained from a relatively younger speaker in his\n30s, whose speech has lost some traditional dialectal features such as\nneutralization of /i/ and /e/ and intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/. However,\nanticausativization remains active in his speech.", "markup_description": "Brief description of the Hokkaido dialect of Japanese
\nIn this database, the Hokkaido dialect is used to refer to the variety of\nJapanese spoken in the northern island Hokkaido and the islands around Hokkaido.\nAccording to Ono & Okuda (1999), Japanese speakers begin to settle on the\ncoastal area of southern Hokkaido from the late 16th century. Most of the\npopulation in those days came from the northern Tohoku region. From the mid 19th\ncentury to mid 20th century, intensive immigration to Hokkaido took place from\nall the part of Japan. However, in this case, too, the majority (around 40%)\ncame from Tohoku (Ono & Okuda 1999). Consequently, the Hokkaido Dialect has\ninherited a considerable number of features from the northern Tohoku dialects.
\nThe Hokkaido dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting\nthis dialect appear in the modern Japanese literature. The most famous example\nis the conversational part of Kanikosen 'The Crab Canning Ship' written by\nTakiji Kobayashi in 1929.
\nThe population of Hokkaido is 5,502,944 (June 30th, 2011). However, the exact\nnumber of speakers of the Hokkaido dialect is unknown.
\nThe Hokkaido dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese\ndialects and it is subdivided into the coastal variety and the inland variety.\nThe coastal variety preserves lots of characteristics of the Tohoku dialects,\nsuch as the imperative use of the conditional inflection, neutralization of /i/\nand /e/, intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/, spotaneous voice morphology with\n/rasar/, and so on. Certain inland dialects are reported to preserve some degree\nof dialectal features of their region of origin (Suga 2011). For example, the\ndialect spoken in Hombetsu (Nakagawa district, Tokachi) has the copula ja/zja,\nfound in the Tokushima dialect spoken in the Shikoku island. According to\nIshigaki (1976), the inland variety underwent influence from the coastal\nvariety, even though the origin of the population is not the same as that of the\ncoastal variety. The most important grammatical feature of the Hokkaido dialect\nfor this database is the existence of anticausativization with /rasar/\nsuffixation. This grammatical phenomenon is found in both varieties.
\nThe most notable feature of this dialect is the voice system. Standard Japanese\nhas three productive voice suffixes, i.e., passive, potential and causative. On\nthe other hand, the Hokkaido dialect has four productive voice suffixes: passive\n/rare/ (traditionally, /rae/), potential /e/ or /rare/ (traditionally, /-ni\ni:/), causative /sase/ (traditionally, /rase/ or /rahe/) and spontaneous\n/rasar/. The spontaneous suffix /rasar/ is used as a marker for\nanticausativization. For the details of anticausativization in the Hokkaido\ndialect, see Sasaki & Yamazaki (2006).
\nDue to the existence of productive antucausative morphology, the Hokkaido\ndialect displays different characteristics of the transitivity alternation from\nthat of Standard Japanese. Concerning transitivization, both Standard Japanese\nand the Hokkaido dialect have lexical and morphological causativization. For\nexample, ak-u 'open.INTR-NPST' -- ake-ru 'open.TR-NPST' and hasir-u 'run-NPST'\n-- hasir-ase-ru 'run-CAUS-NPST'. On the other hand, concerning\nintransitivization, they show difference. Standard Japanese has only lexical\nanticausativization, such as or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST'.\nThe Hokkaido dialect has both lexical and morphological anticausativization,\ne.g., or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST' and nur-u 'paint-NPST' --\nnur-asar-u 'paint-SP-NPST (become painted)'.
\nThe data in this database is obtained from a relatively younger speaker in his\n30s, whose speech has lost some traditional dialectal features such as\nneutralization of /i/ and /e/ and intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/. However,\nanticausativization remains active in his speech.
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